We speak legal English. Matters at law. Материалы межвузовской научно-практической конференции (Москва, 27 ноября 2015 г.)

Simply put, there are four main technical differences between human trafficking and migrant smuggling.

1.Consent: migrant smuggling, while often undertaken in dangerous or degrading conditions, involves consent. Trafficking victims, on the other hand, have either never consented or if they initially consented, that consent has been rendered meaningless by the coercive, deceptive or abusive action of the traffickers.

2.Exploitation: migrant smuggling ends with the migrants’ arrival at their destination, whereas trafficking involves the ongoing exploitation of the victim.

3.Transnationality: smuggling is always transnational, whereas trafficking may

not be.

4.Source of profits: in smuggling cases profits are derived from transportation or facilitation of the illegal entry or stay of a person into another county, while in trafficking cases profits are derived from exploitation.

Who are smuggled migrants and who are migrant smugglers? There may be a range of different actors performing a range of different roles in the smuggling process. Small-scale smugglers will generally not employ other actors in the process but arrange all aspects of the actual operation themselves. Within larger smuggling networks there will be a division of work among the actors involved. Often, those individuals at the top of migrant smuggling networks are the most difficult to identify and bring to justice. Unless their activities are stopped, migrant smuggling will continue. In addition, many smuggled migrants are escaping poverty, lack of opportunity, natural disaster or conflict. Others may be seeking asylum. Many smuggled migrants are poor and uneducated.

The Protocol against Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. The Protocol was adopted by resolution of November 15, 2000, at the fifty-fifth session of the General Assembly of the United Nations. In accordance with Article 21 hereof, the Protocol will be open for signature by all States and by regional economic integration organizations.

Registration date: January 28, 2004.

Which countries are affected by migrant smuggling? Virtually every country in the world is affected by smuggling of migrants, either as a country of origin, transit or destination for migrants smuggled by criminals. Smuggled migrants and those who smuggle them can remain for long periods of time in transit countries, often under conditions of extreme hardship. Also, smugglers may recruit actors for their criminal activities among local or migrant communities, spreading the criminal impact of their business along the routes they use.

Is there a legal instrument to tackle migrant smuggling?

The Protocol against Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (the Migrant Smuggling Protocol) supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime entered into force on January 28, 2004.

•To prevent and combat the smuggling of migrants

•To promote cooperation among States Parties to that end

•To protect the rights of smuggled migrants

In conclusion, we’d like to say that key to combating people smuggling is the need to ensure international cooperation between governments and actors who are working in the sphere of migration and registration of citizens. It is also important to actively introduce the Protocol against the smuggling of migrants to domestic legislation.

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И. А. Космынин

International Copyright Treaties Overview

International copyright treaties stir great interest nowadays since they are connected with such a young juridical sphere as copyright law. This branch is a novel in the Russian civil legislation, and it is obvious that there many problems that must be solved by legislators and enforcing bodies. Proof of authorship or copyright holder reward are the difficulties that often become grounds for litigation. The main objective of this paper is to outline three international acts, which play a big role in international relations between different parties.

There can be found different definitions of the concept ”copyright” in various dictionaries. According to Longman dictionary of contemporary English copyright is ”the legal right to be the only producer or seller of a book, play, film, or record for a specific length of time” [6]. Oxford dictionary says that copyright is ”the exclusive and assignable legal right, given to the originator for a fixed number of years, to print, publish, perform, film, or record literary, artistic, or musical material” [7]. Cambridge dictionary identifies copyright as ”the legal right to control the use of an original piece of work such as a book, play, or song” [5].

It is necessary to point out that the most general definitions to the key terms such as ”literary and artistic works”, definition of ”authorship” and most general ”author’s rights” are provided in all the three conventions.

The Berne convention is based on three basic principles and contains a set of provisions determining the minimum protection to be granted, as well as special provisions available to developing countries that want to make use of them. They are as follows:

1)Works originating in one of the Contracting States must be given the same protection in each of the other Contracting States as the latter grants to the works of its own nationals (principle of ”national treatment”).

2)Protection must not be conditional upon compliance with any formality (principle of ”automatic” protection).

3)Protection is independent of the existence of protection in the country of the work origin (principle of ”independence” of protection).

If, however, a Contracting State provides for a longer term of protection than the minimum prescribed by the Convention and the work ceases to be protected in the country of origin, protection may be denied once protection in the country of origin ceases.

Moreover, main author’s rights such as the right to translate, to perform in public, to broadcast etc. are also stipulated.

As to the duration of protection, the general rule is that protection must be granted until the expiration of the 50th year after the author’s death. There are exceptions to this general rule. In the case of anonymous works, the term of protection expires 50 years after the work has been lawfully made available to the public, while the minimum term of protection for audiovisual (cinematographic) works is 50 years after the release [3].

The Buenos Aires Convention was signed at Buenos Aires, Argentina, August 11th, 1910, providing mutual recognition of copyrights where the work carries a notice containing a statement of reservation of rights (Art. 3). This was commonly done with the phrase ”All rights reserved” next to the copyright notice. This implementation varied as the US law only required the author and year of publishing. Copyright protection under the Convention is granted for the shorter of the terms of the protecting country and the source country of the work (“rule of the shorter term”, Arts. 6, 7).

The Convention is specifically retained by the Universal Copyright Convention (UCC), with the most recent formulation taking precedence in case of conflict. As the Buenos Aires

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Convention was not modified, the presence of a simple copyright notice was sufficient to ensure mutual recognition of copyright between countries, which became parties to the UCC [1].

The Universal Copyright Convention is presently considered the basic document that protects the rights of authors on the international level, on a par with the Berne Convention. To ensure that the existence of the UCC does not lead to a conflict with the Berne Convention, Article 17 of the UCC states that the convention does not affect any provision of the Berne convention, and the appendix declaration to the article goes on to state that any country that withdraws from the Berne Convention after 1st of January 1951 will not be protected by the UCC in countries of the Berne Convention Union [2].

This effectively gave the Berne Convention precedence and penalises any country that withdraws from the Berne Convention to adopt the UCC. The convention details the following points:

•Contracting states provide the same cover to foreign published works as they do to their own citizens.

•States that require formal registration should treat works from foreign states that are signatories of the convention as though they had been registered in the state, provided that they carry a notice which includes the © symbol and states the name of the owner.

• It sets a minimum duration for copyright protection as 25 years from the date of publication, and typically not less than 25 years from the authors death. With a notable exception of photographic and applied arts work which has a minimum protection of 10 years.

• And other, which are similar with the points of The Berne and Buenos Aires Conventions.

As with the Berne Convention, the UCC provides flexibility on how nation states implement details of the convention, and in order to understand specific aspects, it should be read in conjunction with national copyright laws.

The Russian Federation is a signatory to only some of the above mentioned conventions, thus not all the documents have their effect in the country. In fact, only the Bern Convention and UCC have the power in Russia. The provisions of these conventions found their reflection in Part 4 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation and emerged there by the implementation. What is noticeable here, it is that since the Conventions include only the general provisions, the Civil Code of the Russian Federation specifies the details that are necessary for the national regulation, for instance, databases, patents, ECM programs, trademarks and selection achievements.

To conclude, it should be noted that the provisions of the different conventions are identical in nature, despite the fact that each Convention was adopted at different times. The majority of the Convention’s norms have been implemented in the Russian legislation and are reflected in the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. The Russian copyright legislation has some room to be improved and it must be discussed by the legislators.

М. И. Кузнецова

Global Environmental Problems

The earth is considered one of the most beautiful planets in the universe. The earth is the only planet that people can live on, but nowadays they seem to be doing everything to make their home unfit for living. Industrialization has brought us into conflict with

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the natural environment. Our planet is in danger; air, water and land pollution have disastrous consequences which threaten human life on Earth.

Modern world is characterized by many global environmental problems. People are more worried about the environment, as a result of the harmful and dangerous effects of human activity.

People need to be aware of what types of environmental problems our planet is facing. Here are some of the environmental problems:

•Ozone depletion

•Global warming

•Hazardous waste and radioactive pollution

•Wildlife preservation

•Military activities and the environment

•Marine environmental pollution

•Desertification

•Deforestation

•Transboundary pollution

Environmental law — or ”environmental and natural resources law” — is a collective term describing the network of treaties, statutes, regulations, and common and customary laws addressing the effects of human activity on the natural environment.

A.Air quality laws govern the emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere.

B.Water quality laws govern the release of pollutants into water resources, including surface water, ground water, and stored drinking water.

C.Waste management laws govern the transport, treatment, storage, and disposal of all manner of waste, including municipal solid waste, hazardous waste, and nuclear waste, among many other types.

D.Water resources laws govern the ownership and use of water resources, including surface water and ground water.

E. Mineral resource laws cover several basic topics, including the ownership of the mineral resource and who can work them.

F.Forestry laws govern activities in designated forest lands, most commonly with respect to forest management and timber harvesting.

G.Wildlife laws govern the potential impact of human activity on wild animals, whether directly on individuals or populations.

H.Fish laws regulate the right to pursue and take or kill certain kinds of fish and wild

animal.

There are different convention and agreements adopted to solve many these global environmental problems.

The Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary and International Lakes, also known as the Water Convention, is an international environmental agreement and one of five UNECE’s negotiated environmental treaties. The purpose of this Convention is to improve national attempts and measures for protection and management of transboundary surface waters and groundwaters.

The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, often abbreviated as Air Pollution or CLRTAP, is intended to protect the human environment against air pollution and to gradually reduce and prevent air pollution, including long-range transboundary air pollution.

Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer of 1985. The aim hereof is to stop activities changing and damaging the ozone layer, to protect the Earth from

harmful radiation. Another serious environmental problem is the climate change as a result of the greenhouse effect.

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Vienna Convention on Civil liability for Nuclear Damage of 1963. This Convention gives jurisdiction to the courts of the state in whose territory the damage occurred. The operator of a nuclear installation is absolutely liable for nuclear damage. A victim of nuclear damage must present a claim within ten years from the date of the accident or the claim is barred by the Convention. Few states are parties to the Convention, and none of the parties are major nuclear powers.

Е.С. Лазарева

Introduction to modern intellectual property law

What constitutes intellectual property? The concept is constantly changing as the society changes. Things that did not even exist a couple of decades ago are critical pieces of intellectual property today, such as the URL. Then there are aspects of intellectual property that have been around seemingly forever. Patents, for instance, have been with us for at least 500 years. Copyright laws have roots in the eighteenth-century English Law.

Comprehensive patent laws can be traced to seventeenth-century England, and they have been a part of U.S. law since the colonial period. The copyright and patent concepts were both included in the U.S. Constitution. ”To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Time to Authors, and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries”.

General definition of intellectual property law

Intellectual property describes a wide variety of property created by musicians, authors, artists, and inventors. The law of intellectual property typically encompasses the areas of copyright, patents and trademark law. It is intended largely to encourage the which includes inventors in the arts and the sciences. These rights allow artists to protect themselves from infringement or unauthorized use and misuse of their creations. Trademarks and service marks protect distinguishing features (such as names or package designs) that are associated with particular products or services and indicate their commercial source.

Copyright law in Russia

Russian Federal Service for Intellectual Property, Patents and Trademarks (Rospatent) is a federal agency overseeing the use and legal protection of IP rights in Russia. Russia is a party to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works of September 9, 1886 (as amended) and the Universal Copyright Convention of September 6, 1952 (as revised on July 24, 1971). Both became effective for Russia on March 13, 1995. As Russia is a party to the WTO, it is bound by the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). In 2008, Russia joined the WIPO Copyright Treaty (WCT, and it entered into force with regard to Russia on February 5, 2009. In Russia copyright issues are governed by Part IV of the Russian Civil Code (“CC”) that became effective on January 1, 2008. It replaced the copyright law of 1993, which, in turn, drew heavily upon provisions of the conventions of Berne and Rome regarding copyright and neighboring rights and the model laws of World Intellectual Property Organization (“WIPO”).

In Russia (as in many continental European countries) copyright is known as ”author’s rights”. CC Article 1259 contains a detailed list of works that are subject to author’s rights including literary works, derivative works (such as translations), collections (such

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as encyclopedias or data bases), artistic and graphic works, photographs and similar works, computer programs, etc. Article 1259 expressly excludes certain items (such as folklore, news items and official documents and symbols or ideas, discoveries, processes, etc.) from the definition of protected works of authorship. It provides that the protection extends both to published and unpublished works and that no registration or other formalities are required for the creation, exercise or protection of author’s rights. Specific provisions governing copyright appear in Chapter 70 of the CC. Pursuant to Article 1255 and related Articles the author’s rights include: i. exclusive right to the work (discussed in more detail below); ii. right of authorship (i.e. the right to be recognized as the author of the work); iii. ”right to name” (i.e. the right of the author to use or authorize the use of a work under his or her name, under a pen name or anonymously); iv. right of integrity (i.e. the requirement that any modifications, edits, commentaries or illustrations to the work may only be made or added with the consent of the author as well as the right of the author to demand protection of its reputation and personal integrity), v. right of publication (the author who has contractually transferred to another person the right to use its work is deemed to have consented to the publication of the work by such a person); and vi. in cases provided by the CC, other rights (such as the right to withdraw its consent to the publication of work subject to compensating the publisher for resulting damages).

International Conventions on Copyright Law

With the rapidly changing technological landscape, patents are more complicated than they used to be and, arguably, more important than ever. We are now patenting things — such as software — that we could not have imagined until recently, but that are vitally important and central to business models of thousands of businesses. In addition, these businesses operate on an international scale, so, intellectual property today needs to be international too.

Conclusion

Today, strong protection of intellectual property is recognized as one of the cornerstones of formation and growth of small businesses in the United States and elsewhere, especially since the advent of the Internet and other new technologies have placed a premium on new ideas and innovations. Intellectual property allows individuals who come up with a new idea to enjoy the exclusive use of that idea for a certain period of time, which can be a significant monetary incentive for entrepreneurs. But intellectual property law is extraordinarily complex, so small business owners interested in IP issues should consult a legal expert in order to protect themselves to the full extent of the law. Laws surrounding IP rights are likely to see many changes in the coming years as we adjust them to new demands created by the information age.

Н. Д. Лазарева, М. В. Стовпец

Illegal drug trade

Drug trafficking and illicit trade has proven to be a major problem that the international community faces as it enters into the twenty-first century. The illegal drug trade is a global black market dedicated to the cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale of drugs

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that are subject to drug prohibition laws. Most jurisdictions prohibit trade, except under license, of many types of drugs through the use of drug prohibition laws.

Drug trafficking is widely regarded by legislators as a serious offense around the world. Penalties often depend on the type of drug (and its classification in the country into which it is being trafficked), the quantity trafficked, where the drugs are sold and how they are distributed. If the drugs are sold to underage people, then the penalties for trafficking may be tougher than in other circumstances. Drug smuggling carries severe penalties in many countries. Sentencing may include lengthy periods of imprisonment, flogging and even the death penalty (like in Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, India (for the second offence), Bangladesh, etc.) For example, in 2010, two people were sentenced to death in Malaysia for trafficking 1 kilogram of cannabis into the country.

Execution is mostly used as a measure of deterrence, and many have called upon much more effective measures to be taken by countries to tackle drug trafficking; law enforcement can be targeted toward specific criminal organizations (which are often also active in the smuggling of other goods) and even people.

Russia does not tend to be the producer of the drugs but instead smuggles drugs across into Western Europe. Drug trafficking and illicit drug using is a significant problem in Russia. The disintegration of the Soviet Union, the civil war in Afghanistan and the conflicts in the North Caucasus have made good conditions for the development of illegal drug trade. In the early 1990s, use of cocaine was increasingly noted among the young population of the nation. Russian government makes large effort to the struggling against criminal activity. The Federal Drug Control Service of the Russian Federation is specially authorized to address and solve problems relating to traffic in narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and also authorized to combat the illicit drug trafficking. In the Criminal Code of RF there is an article 228 (with notes) that determines illegal actions (acquisition, storage, transportation, manufacturing, processing connected with narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances or their analogues). This article states the existence of such crime and sets penalties for it. In many countries worldwide, the illegal drug trade is thought to be directly linked to violent crimes such as murder. In the late 1990s, in the United States, the Federal Bureau of Investigation estimated that 5% of murders were drug-related. A report by the UK government’s Drug Strategy Unit that was leaked to the press stated that due to the expensive price of highly addictive drugs — heroin and cocaine — drug use was responsible for the great majority of crimes, including 85% of shoplifting, 80–70% of burglaries and 54% of robberies.

A large amount of drugs is smuggled into Europe from Asia. The main source of these drugs is Afghanistan. Farmers in Afghanistan produce drugs which are smuggled into the West and Central Asia. Iran, which has a 900-kilometer common border with Afghanistan, has been used as the main conduit for smuggling Afghan drugs to markets in Europe. The surge in opium production in Afghanistan represented a setback since the world’s largest opium-poppy grower had increased its area under cultivation by 36 percent from 154,000 hectares in 2012 to 209,000 hectares in 2013. With a crop yield of some 5,500 tons, Afghanistan accounted for up to 80 per cent of global opium production. Nowadays it is a serious problem of our society.

Making a conclusion, I want to say that drug using prevalence is stable around the world, according to the 2014 World Drug Report of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), with around 243 million individuals, or 5 percent of the world’s population aged 15–64 having used an illicit drug in 2012. The number of problem drug users are meanwhile reached about 27 million, roughly 0.6 percent of the world’s adult population, or 1 in every 200 people.

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А. Ф. Латыпова

The execution of decisions of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation

The competence of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation, that is establishedbytheConstitutionoftheRussianFederationandtheFederalConstitutionalLaw, is subject to three main objectives: the protection of the constitutional order; the protection of fundamental human rights and freedoms; to provide the leadership and direct action of the Constitution on the whole territory of Russia.

The Russian Constitutional Court implements its authority by making binding decisions that take a special place in the Russian legal system. It is necessary to note that the legal validity of its final decisions exceeds legal force of any legislative act. This, accordingly, means that the power of these decisions is almost equal to the Constitution itself, which then cannot be used either apart from CC’s decisions that are related to the corresponding norms or especially against them.

To achieve the goals of the constitutional proceedings it is extremely important that all bodies of public authorities and officials implement the decisions of the Constitutional Court strictly, timely and fully.

According to the content of the ”Law on the Constitutional Court”, the execution of its decisions can be defined as the elimination of the gaps in the legal regulation, which were revealed or formed by the Constitutional Court as a result of the recognition of a regulation constitutional or unconstitutional.

However, the practice shows that non-execution of the decisions of the Russian Constitutional Court’s takes place both in the sphere of activity of law enforcement and legislative bodies. That is why the issue of the implementation of the Constitutional Court acquires both theoretical and practical value.

One of the main reasons for non-execution of the Constitutional Court’s decisions is the lack of the effective enforcement mechanisms. That is, the absence of particular system of institutions, which would be empowered to ensure the enforcement of court decisions and their legal regulation as a mechanism for execution of the Constitutional Court.

So, in the present ”Law on the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation” there is no section about the enforcement of the decision of the Constitutional Court and it is fair to assume that liability for its non-execution has a declarative nature.

Another reason for the non-enforcement of the Constitutional Court’s decisions is their complicated content; this especially reflects in its legal positions. Usually their wording is not specific but very sophisticated, which in turn hampers their application.

One of the possible difficulties of the implementation of the Constitutional Court’s decisions is the lack of the liability for not conforming of the federal authorities’ regulations in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation.

That is, theoretically, if the Russian Federation Constitutional Court declares the law unconstitutional or, if it rules that it is necessary to address gaps in the legal regulation, the Government of the Russian Federation should bring a draft of the new act to the State Duma within three months after the publication of the decision.

In real life, this process appears to be much longer, because even though the State Duma considers these drafts out of turn, the legislation does not set the deadline for the relevant law. This means, that in case the State Duma rejects the bill, a gap in the legal regulation may exist for many years.

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Thus, in my opinion one of the best options to increase the efficiency of the execution of the Constitutional Court’s decisions and to prevent their failure to perform would be to specify the element of the enforcement mechanism in the ”Law on the Constitutional Court” by introducing there an additional chapter called ”The execution of the Constitutional Court’s decisions” and to clarify the procedure of the enforcement of the Constitutional Court decisions in the internal regulations of the relevant public authority, as well as to personify the liability for its non-execution.

М. Н. Лебедева, Н. Н. Луговская

Drinking and driving

Most people enjoy a little drink from time to time and there is nothing wrong with this. A glass of wine a day is even recommended by the doctor. The problem appears when you get drunk and lose control. If you then consider driving, then it gets even worse. Drinking and driving is very often a lethal combination. Did you know that almost one in seven of all deaths on the road involve drivers who are over the current legal limit? The more you drink, the higher the risk to be involved in a road accident. It doesn’t mean that if you are under the legal limit of alcohol intoxication, you are much safer. Actually many of us overestimate ourselves in a drink and drive situation. Even one drink will have an effect on your judgment and driving ability. You think that you can do things better but in fact you just do them worse. Your ability to judge things and make good decisions becomes prejudiced. If we want to avoid accidents, it looks like we have to choose: drinking or driving?

What does drinking do to your driving?

Alcohol influences on your driving even if it’s ingested in small quantities. Unlike food, alcohol doesn’t digest but gets absorbed in the bloodstream from the small intestine, and less rapidly from the stomach and colon. The blood carries the alcohol to all important organs, such as liver, heart, brain — which coordinates all our activities, including those involved in driving. That’s why it’s always better to avoid driving after drinking; otherwise you can experience the following effects of alcohol:

•Your perception abilities are affected; you are less likely to observe traffic signs, bikers, pedestrians or cars coming from the opposite side;

•You have less control on your reactions in traffic situations; your eyes are slower and they remain focused more time on the same object;

•Your space perspective narrows; you tend to focus more straightforward and don’t look to the right or to the left;

•Your reaction time increases and your reflexes diminish; it takes you more time to respond fast and adapt to the traffic stimuli;

•You will find it more difficult to drive in a straight line;

•You are less able to judge distances and speed;

•You may have a tendency to be overconfident and put yourself in danger.

Risk population

Are we all facing the same risk for driving under the influence of alcohol? Is there a difference? Who is most likely to consume alcohol and drive? The statistics say that the population with the highest risk of drunk driving is the following:

• Male drivers between 22–45 year old who are responsible for almost 50 percent of all drunk driving crashes;

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•People with drinking problems or chronic drunk drivers; some statistics estimate that one of seven adults has a drinking problem and so he is a potential drunk driver;

•Teenage drinkers who are inexperienced drivers as well as drinkers;

•Drinking and drive convictions who are most likely to repeat their behavior and make an accident.

Consequences

You are an experienced driver and you have been driving several times while impaired and nothing bad has happened. Probably that makes you think nothing bad will ever happen. You are wrong. Just take a look to the following possible consequences and maybe this will convince you not do step in your car after a glass wine. Driving drunk can lead to terrible accidents such as:

•Killing someone else

•Losing your own life

•Imprisonment

•Criminal records

•Living with guilt that you injured or caused an accident; depression

•Legal costs •Increased insurance costs

Some quick stats

Alcohol has a big effect on the way people drive. The risk of being involved in a crash increases as the blood alcohol level increases. In fact, if you drink and drive (with a blood alcohol level over 80mg per 100ml) you are three times more likely to be involved in a crash than a sober driver. Take a look at the following facts and you may be amazed:

• Alcohol related crashes are the leading cause of death for young Americans, between the ages of 16 and 24 years old;

• For all Americans between 5 and 35 years of age, motor vehicle accidents are the number one cause of death. Over 50% of these accidents are caused by alcohol impaired drivers;

•One American life is lost every 20 minutes in alcohol related auto crashes;

•It is estimated that three out of every ten Americans will be involved in an alcohol related accident in his or her lifetime;

•Males (31%) were more than twice as likely as females (13%) to report driving after drinking. They also consume more alcohol before driving;

•Over 394,000 people have died in alcohol related accidents in the past 20 years;

•Presently over 17,000 people are killed each year in alcohol related accidents;

•300+ people are killed each week in alcohol related accidents;

•45+ people are killed each day in alcohol related accidents.

In conclusion, I want to say that I believe that all these steps can help people around me prevent impaired driving.

И. В. Литвинов

Evolution of bankruptcy law in the USA

In the United States, early federal bankruptcy laws were temporary responses to bad economic conditions. The first official bankruptcy law was enacted in 1800 in response to land speculation. It was repealed in 1803. Similarly, in 1841, in response to the panic of 1837, a second bankruptcy law was passed. This law was quickly repealed in 1843. The economic

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