We speak legal English. Matters at law. Материалы межвузовской научно-практической конференции (Москва, 27 ноября 2015 г.)

deeply analyzed — may be found in his society and all its contradictions between faith and behavior, ideals and reality, religion and politics, words and actions, aspirations and achievements, the secular and the divine. Naturally, if these contradictions are tolerated by the old, they cannot be tolerated by the young. If some young people do tolerate and bear contradictions, they do so only temporarily.

Extremism may also be initiated by the corruption of regimes, i.e., the despotism of rulers, their egotistic pursuits, their adherence to the views of corrupt counselors, and their total disregard for the rights of their peoples. These practices have severed the bond between religion and the state. Undoubtedly, one of the main causes of extremism is a lack of knowledge and of insight into the purposes, spirit, and essence of din. However, such a lack, which does not imply total ignorance, does not lead to extremism or excessiveness, but rather to their opposites, i.e., degeneration and laxity. It implies, however, semi-knowledge. A person possessing such ”knowledge” concentrates on marginal and trivial issues only, and thereby fails to see the relationship between the parts which form the whole.

Я. А. Ряжнов

Legal regulations of affiliation

In modern society, the establishment of paternity (or affiliation) is considered as a legal fact and the way to protect the rights of the child, because Article 7 of the UN Convention ”On the Rights of the Child” says that ”the child shall be registered immediately after birth and shall have the right from birth to a name, the right to acquire a nationality and, as far as possible, the right to know and be cared for by his or her parents”. Also, paragraph 2 of Article 54 of the Family Code of the Russian Federation states that ”every child has the right to live and grow up in a family, as far as possible, the right to know his or her parents, the right to be cared for, the right to live with them, with the exception of when it is contrary to its interests”. All these legal norms provide a reliable legal protection.

In the Russian Federation, affiliation, or paternity, is established in the administrative order in organs of civil registry office on the basis of the presumption the child’s mother’s husband, voluntarily or judicially. The Family Code says that the procedure for establishing the origin of the child from the father depends on the child’s mother being married or not. The fact of paternity can be established in the registry offices or judicially. Establishment of paternity at birth with persons who are married can be certified with the marriage certificate. Voluntary establishment of paternity is aimed at the emergence of parental relationships between father and child. Also, the Family Code defines the term within which paternity arises, if the persons are not married, the marriage was invalidated, or the child’s mother’s husband has died. Such term of three hundred days after the dissolution of the marriage, or when the marriage was invalid from the date of the child’s mother’s husband death, is fixed. Establishing paternity in respect of a person who has attained the legal age is permitted only with his or her consent.

The law provides for the possibility of establishing paternity judicially — filing a claim or as a special production. The statement of claim is served by the mother or a legal guardian. In case of death of the person who recognized himself as the father of the child,

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but not married, and for some reason put in an application to the registry office, the court of law can establish the affiliation fact by the rules of special proceedings, on the basis of fully verified data.

In this work, the Family Code articles have been considered, which regulate the legal relations of the affiliation (as the paternity establishment). The theme of this work is relevant, since the family plays a crucial role in the development of the child’s personality. Establishing the origin of the child and paternity establishment in the Russian legislation serves as a tool to protect the rights of the child, so the legislation should fully and strictly regulate the issues relating to family and children. Unfortunately, the current family legislation does not meet the modern Russian reality, as the Family Code was developed and adopted in the short terms, and, to our mind, it has affected the quality of the code. Also, for 20 years of the Code existence, it has been made amendments too seldom.

Д. Ш. Саидова

International law

International law is the body of rules and principles that are binding upon civilized states in their relations with one another.

International law includes 3 main areas such as:

•Public International law

•Private International law

•Supernational law

Public International law is a special legal system governing relations between states, international organizations and other subjects of International law.

The subjects of public international law are the participants of international relations that have international rights and obligations, to implement them on the basis of international law and, where appropriate, bearing international responsibility.

There are such subjects of public international law as:

•States

•International organizations

•Order of Malta

•European Union

•National liberation movements

•Federation members

•Free Cities

In public international law there are several sectors and institutions:

•Diplomatic law and consular law

•International humanitarian law

•International space law

•International nuclear law

•International economic law

•International law of environmental protection

•International criminal law

These institutions are governed by the public international law.

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Private International law is a set of rules of domestic law, international treaties and customs that regulate civil, labor and other relations, complicated by a foreign element.

Private international law is governed by two basic methods of collision and material control method.

1.Collision method works by applying a conflict rule, which defines the right of states to regulate the corresponding ratio.

2.Material control method exists in two forms. First of them is international law. It takes place in the presence of the material standards, unified international treaty that regulates the relations directly. The second manifestation of material control method lies in the areas of national substantive specifically focused on the regulation of relations within the subject of private international law.

Article 26 of the Vienna Convention on the law of treaties expresses one of the fundamental principles of public international law, pacta sunt servanda (latin for ”every treaty in force is binding upon the parties to it”). According to article 26 all parties of treaty must perform their obligations under the treaty in good faith. The parties to a treaty may amend it. The grounds for invalidating an international treaty are errors, corruption, coercion, and conflict with domestic law.

А. А. Саламова

Drug abuse and addiction

Some people are able to use recreational or prescriptible drugs without ever experiencing negative consequences or addiction.

Teenagers experiment with drugs for many different reasons. Many first try drugs out of curiosity, to have a good time, because friends are doing it, or in an effort to improve athletic performance or ease another problem, such as stress, anxiety, or depression.

Addiction is a complex disorder characterized by compulsive drug use.

How drug abuse and addiction can develop

Teenagers who experiment with drugs continue to use them because the substance either makes them feel good, or stops them from feeling bad. In many cases, however, there is a fine line between regular use and drug abuse and addiction. Very few addicts are able to recognize when they have crossed that line.

Four myths about drug abuse and addiction

•MYTH 1: Overcoming addiction is simply a matter of willpower. You can stop using drugs if you really want to.

•MYTH 2: Addiction is a disease; there’s nothing you can do about it. Most experts agree that addiction is a brain disease, but that doesn’t mean you’re a helpless victim. The brain changes associated with addiction can be treated and reversed through therapy, medication, exercise, and other treatments.

•MYTH 3: Addicts have to hit rock bottom before they can get better. Recovery can begin at any point in the addiction process — and the earlier, the better.

•MYTH 4: Treatment didn’t work before, so there’s no point in trying again.

Recovery from drug addiction is a long process that often involves setbacks. Relapse doesn’t mean that treatment has failed or that you’re a lost case.

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When your teen has a drug problem

Discovering your child uses drugs can generate fear, confusion, and anger in parents. It’s important to remain calm when confronting your teen, and only do so when everyone is sober. Explain your concerns and make it clear that your concern comes from love. It’s important that your teen feels you are supportive.

Five steps parents can take:

•Lay down rules and consequences. Your teen should understand that using drugs comes with specific consequences. But don’t make hollow threats or set rules that you cannot enforce.

•Monitor your teen’s activity. Know where your teen goes and who he or she hangs out with. It’s also important to routinely check potential hiding places for drugs — in backpacks, between books on a shelf, in DVD cases or make-up cases, for example.

•Encourage other interests and social activities. Expose your teen to healthy hobbies and activities, such as team sports and afterschool clubs.

•Talk to your child about underlying issues. Drug use can be the result of other problems.

•Get help. Teenagers often rebel against their parents but if they hear the same information from a different authority figure, they may be more inclined to listen. Try a sports coach, family doctor, therapist, or drug counselor.

А. А. Саркисян

The international legal basis

of anti-terrorist operations in a foreign country

Nowadays we can’t imagine the world without the news about terrorist attacks, about the development and the emergence of new terrorist groups and endless struggle against them. This struggle has become a distant part of the news life and we don’t even notice that. What will happen if hostilities reach us? Will we find ourselves ready to fight against the enemy that seemed so far away? The hottest front in this struggle are the territory of Iraq and Syria, which formed the Islamic State. In the territories that are occupied by ISIL held various operations as a coalition led by the United States and certain countries. The question arises, if these actions legally approved because these were no any agreements with government and the were no official authorization of such operation by the United Nations.

According to the UN charter and resolutions of the Security council it’s necessary to speak about illegal carrying out of these operations, because it hasn’t got official permissions and legal grounds for it. Article 2, paragraph 4. All Members will refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner that inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations. Proceeding from the charter of the UN it is possible to establish that fact that only the UN Security Council on behalf of the UN can carry out any power actions concerning a threat to peace, violations of the world and acts of aggression according to chapter VII of the Charter of the UN that including perform anti-terrorist operations and providing the mandate on carrying out such operations to the wishing country.

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Another kind of action which international law admits is the official help of a friendly state in carrying out anti-terrorist operations. Among the recent operations it is possible to note such operations as the operation ”Serval” of the French armed forces in Mali against the Tuaregs that raised in the north of the country and radical Islamist groups. According to statements of the French officials, intervention is undertaken the request of the country’s government with the purpose to stop advance of Islamic extremists in the direction of the capital of Bamako, to ensure safety of several thousand French citizens in Mali and to keep territorial integrity of the country and, eventually, to exempt the country North from Islamists. Operation was performed since January 11, 2013, and came to the end on July 14, 2014.

On September 30, the Federation Council approved using the Russian troops in Syria. As the Chief of Presidential Administration Sergei Ivanov explained, it was only air operation against fighters of the Islamic State group forbidden in Russia, and input to the country of the overland contingent was excluded. On the same day the Air Force of the Russian Federation started striking the first blows on positions of Islamists at the request of the official government of Syria.

These are the most interesting examples of the operations which don’t violate norms international rights are not beyond the charter of the UN. But these examples are simply small part of the numerous operations violating international law and getting under the term ”aggression” in the charter of the UN and going to a section with article 2 point 4. Among the most striking examples of similar violations is possible to note operations in Serbia, in Iraq and in Libya.

These incidents become not precedents, but the rule and are an international legal problem. Showing to all countries weakness of system of the international security, repeated violation of the charter of the UN is threaten the developed international legal system. Belittling value of the UN in the solution of the conflicts, calling in question authority of the Security Council and desire to reform the charter and UN system for a justification and legitimization of violations.

Allthesehavebecomeseriousfearsbecausetheseactionsthreatennotonlyinternational legal norms, but also the world and safety of all mankind.

П. А. Ступченко

Criminal offences

Nowadays criminal offences and breach of human rights are not uncommon. One can come across them everywhere. Violence has become part of our life. Every day mass media shows us violence against people, terrorism, terrorist acts, inhumane acts, persecution on political, racial, ethnic, religious, gender and other grounds and so on. People are already used to this kind of information, but I think it threatens peace all over the world.

In this report I’d like to tell you about one criminal offence. It is interesting to me because it’s an example of criminal ingenuity and we can retrace the motive of the offence. Criminals do everything to apply law in their own interests. They often commit a criminal breach of trust for financial gain. Mass media makes us acquire more and more material things. That’s why there is a temptation to get much money immediately. A felon doesn’t think about grave consequences and commits a crime.

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I won’t give real names, so let the felon’s name be Mr. X.

Here is the story. In November, 2014, the Perov District Court of Moscow imposed a sentence on Mr. X. He was found guilty of fraud and legalization of property acquired illegally.

He created a criminal group to get hold of the flat of the deceased in Moscow. Mr. X organized passing the victim’s property into the hands of a Mrs. Z. She was in collusion with Mr. X. They forged the signature of the deceased and during the official registration of the transaction. Then Mr. X organized sale of the stolen flat to an honest client and got hold of money.

When the fraud was revealed, a criminal case was initiated, a civil suit of the state property department was complied with, and the transaction was ruled illegal. The felon was convicted. Mr. X was sentenced to long-term imprisonment and his accomplice Mrs. Z was sentenced to 6 years of imprisonment.

But sometimes criminals go unpunished in spite of committing a crime. Every day somebody commits a homicide, steals, robs, loads the dice against smb, violates law, etc.

We face a growing vagrancy problem as well as the problem of young people’s aggressive behavior. It is better to prevent and deter crime rather than put smb on trial. But law and order must be binding upon everybody.

In my opinion every citizen can make a valuable contribution to the combat against criminality. There are some common rules:

1.Don’t keep silent about different kinds of crimes!

2.Help our police and state bodies prevent criminal activity in your district. Don’t coddle criminals!

3.Don’t forget of criminal complicity. Don’t commit crimes!

We must intensify cooperation between the national administration and judicial, police, financial and other authorities for the purpose of fighting against terrorism and its financing. Our government must pay special attention to juvenile delinquency. Official agencies must crack on juvenile crime through interaction with other organizations.

К. С. Тиханов

Das Urheberrecht der Bundesrepublik Deutschland

Das Urheberrecht der Bundesrepublik Deutschland ist der Teil der Rechtsordnung, der das Recht des Urhebers an seinen Werken schützt. Als objektives Recht umfasst es die Summe der Rechtsnormen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, die das Verhältnis des Urhebers und seiner Rechtsnachfolger zu seinem Werk regeln; es bestimmt Inhalt, Umfang, Übertragbarkeit und Folgen der Verletzung des subjektiven Rechts. Es ist schwerpunktmäßig in dem Urheberrechtsgesetz (UrhG) aus dem Jahre 1965, dem Wahrnehmungsgesetz (WahrnG) und dem Verlagsgesetz (VerlG) kodifiziert. Es stellt das Pendant zum gewerblichen Rechtsschutz (z. B. dem Patentund Markenrecht) dar und ist dem deutschen Privatrecht zuzuordnen. Während durch das Recht des gewerblichen Rechtsschutzes Ergebnisse geistigen Schaffens (sog. Immaterialgüter) auf gewerblichem Gebiet geschützt sind, schützt das deutsche Urheberrecht solche auf kulturellem Gebiet.

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Das subjektive Urheberrecht bezeichnet das subjektive und absolute Recht, das die ideellen und materiellen Interessen des Urhebers an seinem Geisteswerk schützt.

ZuunterscheidenistdasWerkvomWerkstück:DiesesistnurdiejeweiligeVerkörperung des Werkes. Das Werkstück unterliegt den Regelungen des Sachenrechts.

Der Schutz des Urheberrechts wird nicht ewig gewährt. Der Schutz des Werkes beginnt, sobald die Voraussetzungen des § 2 Absatz 2 UrhG erfüllt sind. Es endet 70 Jahre nach dem Tode des alleinigen Urhebers (§ 64 UrhG). Eine entsprechende Regelung gibt es in § 65 UrhG für mehrere Urheber. Ist der Urheber anonym oder veröffentlicht er unter einem Pseudonym, erlischt das Urheberrecht in der Regel 70 Jahre nach Veröffentlichung (§ 66 UrhG). Mit Ende der Schutzfrist ist das Werk gemeinfrei. Stets gemeinfrei sind nach § 5 UrhG amtliche Werke.

Der Rechtsinhaber des Urheberrechtes: Der Urheber Rechtsinhaber ist der Urheber. Nach § 7 UrhG ist dies der Schöpfer des Werkes, woraus sich ableiten lässt, dass es sich bei ihm nur um eine natürliche Person, also einen Menschen, handeln kann. Dies schließt sowohl juristische Personen als auch Tiere aus.[7] Auch wenn das Werk von Anfang an aufgrund einer Bestellung erschaffen worden ist, so ist doch niemals der Besteller auch Urheber.

Haben mehrere Personen ein Werk gemeinsam so erschaffen, dass sich ihre Anteile nicht gesondert verwerten lassen, so steht ihnen das Urheberrecht auch gemeinsam als Miturheber zu (§ 8 UrhG). Notwendig ist auf jeden Fall, dass der Miturheber einen schöpferischen Beitrag geleistet hat.

Bei verbundenen Werken (also Werke, an denen unterschiedliche Urheber für sich einzeln betrachtbare Beiträge geliefert haben (Bsp. Lied und Liedtext)) trifft § 9 UrhG die Regelung, dass unter gewissen Umständen eine Einwilligung eines oder mehrerer Urheber nicht notwendig ist.

Schimpansen können nicht Erzeuger eines „Werkes“ sein Schutzgegenstand des deutschen Urheberrechts sind gemäß § 1 UrhG Werke der Literatur, Wissenschaft, Kunst. Die in § 2 UrhG erfolgende Aufzählung (Reden und öffentliche Reden, Werke aus dem Computerbereich, Tanz und Pantomime, Lichtbildwerke und Filme) ist nicht abschließend. Als Werk sind in § 2 Abs. 2 „persönliche geistige Schöpfungen“ definiert. Nach herrschender Meinung umfasst dieser Werkbegriff vier Elemente:

1.Persönliches Schaffen

2.Wahrnehmbare Formgestaltung

3.Geistiger Gehalt

4.Eigenpersönliche Prägung

М. С. Тростянецкая

An outlook on the supreme legislative authority in Britain

In Great Britain Parliament is the supreme legislative authority. Parliament is formed by three elements — the Queen, the House of Lords and the elected House of Commons, but they are constituted on different principles. Two important parts of Parliament, known as the House of Commons and the House of Lords, meet together only on significant ceremonies such as a coronation or the State opening of Parliament.

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Organization of Parliament’s life. The life of Parliament is divided into sessions. Each session begins and ends in November or October and usually lasts for one year. According to the Parliament Act 1911, Parliament works for five years but in practice it can be dissolved and, in this case, the general elections are held before ending of its term.

The House of Commons is the center of parliamentary power. It consists of 650 Members of Parliament, called sometimes MPs. All members are elected by universal adult suffrage and hold their seats during whole term of Parliament. Nowadays 533 seats belong to England, 40 to Wales, 59 to Scotland and 18 to Northern Ireland. The House of Commons has its own Leader who is the member of Government. The Leader organizes the activity of the House, announces the following week’s programme and when the Prime Minister is absent acts as the spokesman of the House on important ceremonies. There is also the chief officer of the House who is the Speaker. He presides over the House, controls the debates and has authority to give effect to the rules and orders of the House. The House meets in Westminster during the year from Mondays to Fridays. This chamber plays major role in law making.

The House of Lords is composed of Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal. There are 26 Lords Spiritual. They are the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, the Bishops of London, Durham, Winchester and other 21 senior bishops of the Church of England. The Lords Temporal are the most numerous group in the House of Lords. This group consists of all hereditary peers and other life peers. The House is headed by the Leader who has similar with the Leader of Commons functions. The Leader has the right to act as the main Government spokesman in the House. The Speaker or the Lord Chancellor takes part in the sitting but he has no authority to control debates directly and to influence the rules of the House.

”Whips”. Inside Parliament there are some organizations which realize party control. These organs are known as ”Whips”. In Parliament there are two Whips in both Houses: Government Whips and Opposition Whips. Government Whips include the Chief Whip or Parliamentary Secretary to the Treasury and other Government Whips such as the Deputy Chief Whip and five Assistant Whips. The Government Chief Whip has responsibility for finding out the details of the Government’s programme, calculating time necessary for discussing each item and arranging the business of the individual sittings.

All ministers of the Cabinet are members of one of the Parliament Houses that is why they are accountable for Parliament. Most ministers are members of the House of Commons though the Government is also represented by ministers from the Lords. The Prime Minister is the head of the Cabinet. He is appointed by the Queen. The Prime Minister carries out many executive functions such as recommendation candidates for appointment as minister and control the Cabinet.

The Queen is the head of the State. As Great Britain is the constitutional monarchy, the Queen rules with the support of Parliament and doesn’t have real political power. The Queen appoints the Prime Minister, reads speech on the State opening of Parliament and is constituted as the highest court in Parliament.

Parliament has many important functions. It passes laws, provides them and examines the government policy and administration, discusses significant matters of the day. It also has some judicial functions. For example, cases associated with impeachments are trialed by the Houses of Lords and Commons. More than that, Parliament and government elections are very closely connected in Britain. It is the House of Commons that is usually elected at a Parliamentary election. This reflects the leading role of the Commons in some situations. All in all, the significant role of the supreme legislative authority of Britain is evident for us.

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О. С. Ужакина

Gewaltenteilung

Gewaltenteilung ist die Verteilung der Staatsgewalt auf mehrere Staatsorgane zum Zweck der Machtbegrenzung und der Sicherung von Freiheit und Gleichheit. Nach historischem Vorbild werden dabei die drei Gewalten Gesetzgebung (Legislative), Verwaltung (Exekutive) und Rechtsprechung (Judikative) unterschieden. Vollziehung ist der Überbegriff für Verwaltung und Justiz, die beide organisatorisch grundsätzlich streng getrennt sind.

Das klassische Modell der Gewaltenteilung wird heutzutage vielfältig erweitert. Grundmodell ist die horizontale Aufteilung der rechtlichen Kompetenzen (Regelungsmacht) im Staat (nämlich von Gesetzgebung, Regierung und Verwaltung und Rechtsprechung) auf eigens dafür geschaffene Staatsorgane. Neben der Machtkontrolle dient diese Zuweisung spezifischer Funktionen an eigens dafür eingerichtete Organe auch einer „organadäquaten Funktionenteilung“, das heißt einer zweckdienlich spezialisierten Wahrnehmung der staatlichen Aufgaben. Außer der horizontalen gibt es eine vertikale Verteilung rechtlicher Kompetenzen: im Bundesstaat insbesondere zwischen dem Bund und den Gliedstaaten, im Völkerrecht zwischen den Nationalstaaten und den supranationalen Organisationen, so z. B. in der Europäischen Union.

Situation in Deutschland

In Deutschland ist die Gewaltenteilung im Grundgesetz festgelegt:

Nach der unveränderlichen Art wird die Staatsgewalt „durch besondere Organe der Gesetzgebung, der vollziehenden Gewalt und der Rechtsprechung ausgeübt“ (horizontale Ebene); vor diesem Hintergrund kann die Gewaltenteilung als Verteilung von Zuständigkeiten (Kompetenzen) verstanden werden, da die Staatsgewalt als solche nicht geteilt wird. Damit verbunden ist auch die Trennung von staatlichen Institutionen, deren Personal, Budget, Rechte, Aufgaben und Pflichten. Die Organe der Gesetzgebung sind Bundestag und Bundesrat, das Organ der vollziehenden Gewalt die Bundesregierung. Aufgrund der ebenfalls im Grundgesetz festgelegten Gewaltenverschränkung, die durch die Wahl des Bundeskanzlers durch den Bundestag entsteht, wird die institutionelle Gewaltenteilung teilweise durch eine Gewaltenteilung zwischen Opposition und Regierungskoalition ersetzt. Außerdem liegt eine starke personelle Gewaltenverschränkung vor, da viele Regierungsmitglieder, jedenfalls der Bundeskanzler, zugleich Abgeordnete im Deutschen Bundestag sind. Die klare Trennung von Exekutive und Legislative wird durch den von den Länderexekutiven beschickten, aber selbst legislativ tätigen Bundesrat teilweise aufgehoben, da dieser bei der Gesetzgebung mitwirkt. Gleiches gilt für die Möglichkeit ministerieller Verordnungen. Diese sind (anders als der spezifisch deutsche Bundesrat) in fast allen Ländern der Welt üblich und sinnvoll, um die Handlungsfähigkeit zu gewährleisten und den Bundestag nicht mit kleinen Detailvorschriften zu überlasten.

Eine weitere Brechung des Gewaltenteilungsprinzips ergibt sich durch die sehr starke Stellung des Bundesverfassungsgerichts. Dieses gehört eindeutig der Judikative an, kann aber Entscheidungen mit Gesetzeskraft erlassen. Damit greift ein Teil der Judikative in den Bereich der Legislative ein. Trotz dieser Machtfülle des Bundesverfassungsgerichts hat es bisher, von wenigen Ausnahmen abgesehen, durch die gerichtliche Zurückhaltungkeine allzu großen tatsächlichen Verwerfungen im System der Gewaltenteilung gegeben.

Die vertikale Gewaltenteilung ist durch Art der Deutschland als demokratische und soziale Bundesrepublik konstituiert, sowie durch Artikel gesichert, in dem festgelegt wird,

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dass „eine Änderung dieses Grundgesetzes, durch welche die Gliederung des Bundes in Länder [und/oder] die grundsätzliche Mitwirkung der Länder bei der Gesetzgebung verändert wird, unzulässig ist.“ Auch die Aufteilung der Macht zwischen Bund und Ländern ist im Grundgesetz festgelegt.

Die zeitliche Ebene ist durch die Festsetzung von Amtsperioden und regelmäßigen Wahlen (bedingt durch das parlamentarische Regierungssystem) festgelegt. Die soziale Ebene wird durch Grundrechte wie das Recht auf freie Meinungsäußerung, Versammlungsfreiheit, Vereinigungsfreiheit und Petitionsrecht gesichert. Die dezisive Ebene wird durch die eben genannten Grundrechte gesichert, die den Parteien die Mitwirkung bei der politischen Willensbildung des Volkes geben. Die konstitutionelle Ebene ist ebenfalls stark ausgeprägt: Das Grundgesetz schützt sich selbst (Ewigkeitsklausel des Grundgesetzes) und den Staat vor Änderungen wichtiger Prinzipien

Д. C. Фенькова

Space law

Space law is an area of the law that encompasses national and international law governing activities in outer space. International lawyers have been unable to agree on a uniform definition of the term ”outer space”, although most lawyers agree that outer space generally begins at the lowest altitude above sea level at which objects can orbit the Earth, approximately 100 km.

The inception of the field of space law began with the launch of the world’s first artificial satellite by the Soviet Union in October 1957. Named Sputnik 1, the satellite was launched as part of the International Geophysical Year. Since that time, space law has evolved and assumed more importance as humankind has increasingly come to use and rely on spacebased resources.

Beginning in 1957, nations began discussing systems to ensure the peaceful use of outer space. Bilateral discussions between the United States and USSR in 1958 resulted in the presentation of issues to the UN for debate. In 1959, the UN created the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS). COPUOS in turn created two subcommittees, the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee and the Legal Subcommittee. The COPUOS Legal Subcommittee has been a primary forum for discussion and negotiation of international agreements relating to outer space.

The basic understanding comes from these descriptions given by the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs:

(a)The term ”remote sensing” means the sensing of the Earth’s surface from space by making use of the properties of electromagnetic waves emitted, reflected or :diffracted by the sensed objects, for the purpose of improving natural resources management, land use and the protection of the environment;

(b)The term ”primary data” means those raw data that are acquired by remote sensors borne by a space object and that are transmitted or delivered to the ground: from space by telemetry in the form of electromagnetic signals, by photographic film, magnetic tape or any other means;

(c)The term ”processed data” means the products resulting from the processing of the primary data, needed to make such data usable;

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