We speak legal English. Matters at law. Материалы межвузовской научно-практической конференции (Москва, 27 ноября 2015 г.)

•Practice changing the order of elements in the clause i.e. practice holding individual words or ideas of the clause/sentence and working them back in much later (i.e. a date can very easily be switched from first to last in a sentence).

•Have someone record a long series of random numbers onto a cassette. Interpret from that cassette, first being just one number behind the original and then progressively trying to stay further behind until you are 3, 4 or even 5 numbers behind the original,

Reformulation or reframing in its various forms is one of the most useful tools the interpreter has [3, p. 91]. These are the exercises that might usefully be undertaken to improve the reformulation skills:

•Invert the meaning of the text.

•Rework the grammatical structure of sentences without changing their meaning.

•Change the same speech to very serious then very ironic

•Add as many redundancies as possible and then make your speech concise.

•Try to overuse one metaphor throughout a single speech. They should correspond to the sense of the original even though the original speaker has not indulged in the same way. For example, all things related to the law: burden of proof, a matter of record, next of kin, etc.

•Use as many Latin root words as possible then interpret the same speech a second time using none.

•While interpreting deliberately do not use a word — find a synonym.

•Parataxis — changing the row of co-hyponyms into one hyponym and hypernym. E.g. change ”invoice, proposal, license, certificate, application form” into ”invoice and other documents”.

Stress management skills are also of high importance to the modern interpreters. Some exercises may be amusing or game-like, making them very popular among students. These are the exercises that might usefully be undertaken to improve the stress management skills:

•”Just a minute”. This is UK radio game show in which one must speak on given subject, without hesitation or repetition, for 60 seconds or more.

•Practice in the most relaxed position you can come up with. This should counter balance the unnaturally tense posture of most student interpreters. It will also demonstrate that the working of the brain is not enhanced gripping the microphone, eyes closed, grasping the desk so tightly that your fingers go white.

The exercises described above deal mainly with the active component of language mastery. Moreover, because of time constraints, they only involve a small part of the relevant vocabulary. This means that the main point of any exercises is that they should be done on regular basis.

М. А. Дубовицкая, А. В. Рудковская

The problem of interpreting set expressions from Russian to English in political and social texts

The issue of interpreting set expressions from Russian to English is difficult problem at all times. This theme is disputed by famous linguists, such as Rezker Y.I., Suchodrev V.M., Palazchenko P.R., Klukina T.P., Klukina-Vituck M.U., Lanchikov V.K. etc. Apart from the problem of interpreting set expressions from one language

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to another, they mark out essential qualities for the interpreter. At the present time the well-known interpreter Palazchenko P.R. points out following qualities for this trade: emotional stability, diplomacy, ability for keeping feeling under control, stamina, quickwitted, agility and luck. But the most important quality is love for language3. Moreover, according to the linguist Rezker Y.I. ”the interpreter is deprived of choice, if languages correspondences are established”4. In other words, the more language correspondences the interpreter or translator knows, the easer he is able to transform the speech or text from one language to another.

Nowadays many politicians and celebrities use a lot of set-expressions in their speech to make it more beautiful or make an impression on audience. As a result of this, many interpreters can get into difficulties. So it is worth mentioning that the term ”translation” means ”the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text”1. In other words, the main goal of translation is to refer the main meaning of the text or speech from one language to another. Therefore, the text of speech should not be translated word for word. For example, the Russian phrase ”delo pakhnet kerosinom” we should translate as it smells of trouble; trouble is in the air or something is really fishy there. Or another instance, the sentence ”kotleti otdel’no, mukhi otdel’no” can be transformed as first things first; let’s not lump everything together; let’s not mix apples and oranges3. In accordance with these examples, one might say that it is better to use descriptive translation or find language correspondence in other language for one or another set expression, proverbs etc.

At the present time the problem of interpreting set expressions from Russian to English in political and social texts remains the involving and relevant issue, as the understanding of the text depends on the correctness of the translation. Therefore, the interpreter should constantly improve his essential translation skills, in order to rely on them in various and difficult situations.

Д. А. Евсеева

Inhumane methods of criminal punishment in Islamic countries

Every day people are executed by the state as punishment for various crimes. All over the world, the death penalty is considered to be inhumane.

The death penalty is cruel and degrading. Amnesty International opposes the death penalty at all times — regardless of who is accused, the type of crime, guilt or innocence, or the method of execution.

Today the number of countries that abolished execution has risen to 140. This is 2/3 of all countries. On the contrary, some Islamic countries from the Eastern part of the world are still practicing different types of harsh punishments. The list includes Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Yemen, Libya etc. The legal systems of these countries are mainly based on Shari’a (Islamic law).

Shari’a has four levels: the Qur’an, the Hadith, the Qiyas and the Ijma. The Qur’an is the central religious text of Islam; it contains revelations of God to prophet Muhammad.

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The Hadith is a collection of prophet’s sayings and actions. The Qiyas refers to the process of analogical reasoning which is based on both the Qu’ran and the Hadith; it is used to deal with new situations as they arise. Finally, the Ijma is the consensus of opinion among the scholars.

Islamic criminal law divides crimes into several categories. Hudud crimes are the most dangerous for Islamic society, the punishments are fixed on the Qur’an and the Hadith (e.g.: rebellion, adultery, apostasy). Quisas crimes are crimes against an individual or a family, it’s the Islamic principle of ”an eye for an eye”, and punishments for such crimes either reflect the crime or consist of Diya (the material offset, ”blood money”. At last, Ta’zir crimes are various crimes that may be punished according to the discretion of a judge (e.g.: thefts among relatives, homosexual contacts).

Saudi Arabia’s legislation is based on both Shari’a principles and customary law (traditional common rule). The Qur’an and the Sunna form the country’s Constitution. However, the whole legal system is a rigid Wahhabite interpretation of the Islamic law. The level of gender discrimination and derogatory punishments are impossibly high for the 21st century. The public use of capital and corporal punishment remains common. The Kingdom performed 15 beheadings in the first 20 days of January in 2015 and executed a total of 87 people in 2014, where 72 of these executions took place between August and December. Saudi Arabia’s punishment list includes sentencing to death, death by stone, 100 lashes, amputation of the head and foot.

Saudi Arabia still hasn’t signed the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) which permits the use of the death penalty only in limited circumstances — the most serious crimes committed by persons over the age of 18 years.

Among the most blatant executors is Iran. The country was a leader in the capital punishment chart in the first 10 months of 2012. The exact number of executions is hard to measure. A significant discrepancy exists between official documents and those collected by human rights organizations. The number of executions flows between 280 and 700, secret and public executions are included. Most of the executed were drug dealers.

What’s surprising is that Iran carries out juvenile executions despite the prohibition of the International Human Rights Law on applying capital punishment to people under the age of 18 years.

An Iranian man was convicted of blinding another man using acid. The attacker was found guilty of throwing acid in the face of his victim 5 years ago in Qom. He was sentenced to be blinded in both eyes by gouging them and to 10 years of imprisonment; furthermore, he had to pay a huge fine. This is the first time when eye gouging was implemented. In most previous cases doctors had refused to take such actions.

International human rights organizations such as Amnesty International hold that flogging, the amputation of limbs and retaliation for grievous hurt such as blinding or the pulling out of teeth are a form of harsh and inhuman punishment. The main principle of modern criminal law is that a person shall not be convicted of a criminal offence and punished for it unless that offence is defined and the penalty therefore is prescribed in national or international law. This was regarded so important that it was raised to the status of a human rights principle. This norm is violated by many states that have implemented Islamic criminal law.

Why is the death penalty wrong? First of all, sentencing someone to death violates their right to life, which is the most fundamental of all human rights. All men are created equal. Moreover, the death penalty disgraces human dignity.

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Second, the death penalty doesn’t reduce crime effectively. The General Assembly of the United Nations has recently stated that ”there is no conclusive evidence of the deterrent value of the death penalty”.

Third, there is a great risk of executing innocent people. No matter how well-developed a justice system is, human failure will always remain.

Finally, we are the ”State”. When the ”State” kills, we are the participants.

О. О. Епифанов

Roman law

Roman law is the legal system which used in Ancient Rome from the eights century before Christ to the sixth century Anno Domini and also the brunch of legal system which concerned to its research. Roman law was the model or prototype of the legal systems of many other States, is the historical basis of the Romano-Germanic (continental) legal family.

The first indications of the form of customary law of Rome and its legal institutions can be found in the extant findings regarding court cases. The first extant sources of the written law of Rome are the laws of the Roman kings.

One of the most important is the code of laws of twelve tables, which suffered many of the provisions of the Laws of Solon, refers to the middle of V century BC to III century BC Roman law has already clearly separated from religious norms.

The basic principle of Roman law is the claim that the state is the result of the established agreements between the citizens of the state address all legal issues according to pre-accepted by General consensus the rules. This principle of Roman law of this form of government as a Republic, which is by far the most common form of power. Roman justice considers justice, derived from equity, as the basic principle of realization of law. ”Jus est ars boni et aequi”, says the dictum of Celsus, Jr., and translated as ”Law is the art( science) of good and equal” and not fair, contrary to popular opinion (aequusequal). Casuistically Roman law is based on the high awareness of the role of the judiciary. ”I have a claim — so I have the right” — this describes the attitude of the Roman dictum.

The structure of Roman law is divided into two large branches: Roman private law and public law. Since not all inhabitants of Ancient Rome were citizens, then the concept of ”private law” doesn’t coincide with the concept of ”civil right”. With the conquest of the surrounding Mediterranean lands were ”the right people”.

Public law concerned the interests of the entire Roman Empire, its legal provisions and private law provided for the right individual interested. It is from private law originates modern civil law. Roman private law was concerned with issues of family relationships, inheritance, contractual and binding relations, protection of private rights.

In our days, the most common form of government if republic, and it is the basic principle of Roman law was the basis for its occurrence. This principle argued that the state is the result of an agreement between citizens to address disputed legal issues at the preagreed rules. The core values of the Roman law were equality, kindness and justice. High roles in the law of Ancient Rome was given the judiciary. The Romans said that the right makes sense as long as it is beneficial.

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Е. А. Ефимова

Family law

Family is a fundamental social group in society consisting of one or two parents and their children. The word ”family” is used metaphorically to create more inclusive categories such as community, nationhood, global village and humanism.

Family law stays on guard of the order and well-being in the family.

Family laws is an area of the legal practice that deals with family matters and domestic relations, including:

•marriage, civil unions, and domestic partnerships;

•adoption and surrogacy;

•child abuse and child abduction;

•the termination of relationships and ancillary matters including divorce, annulment, property settlements, alimony, child custody and visitation, child support and alimony awards;

•juvenile adjudication;

•paternity testing and paternity fraud.

We intend to touch on principal aspects of family law. But to make introduction, we want to take a look at the definition of ”marriage” and ”divorce”.

Marriage, also called matrimony or wedlock is a socially or ritually recognized union or a legal contract between spouses that establishes rights and obligations between them, between them and their children, and between them and their in-laws. The definition of marriage varies according to different cultures, but it is principally an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually sexual, are acknowledged.

Six types of marriage exist: monogamy, polygamy, child marriage, same-sex and thirdgender marriages, temporary marriages, cohabitation.

Divorce is the termination of marriage or a marital union, cancelling and/or reorganizing of legal duties and responsibilities of marriage, thus, dissolving the bonds of matrimony between a married couple under the rule of law of the particular country and/or the state. Divorce laws vary considerably around the world but in most countries it requires the sanction of a court or another authority in a legal process.

Seven types of divorce exist: contested divorce, at-fault divorce, summary divorce, nofault divorce, uncontested divorce, collaborative divorce, mediated divorce.

Children have never been very good at listening to their elders, but they have never failed to imitate them.

James Arthur Bladwin

It’s known that behavior of one or both of parents influences child’s psychological development. In the family where parents are law-abiding, children grow highly moral. But in our society there are parents that neglect moral values. Children in such families are in the group of risk.

In family law child’s rights are touched in articles on child abuse and child abduction, juvenile adjudication, adoption etc.

Child custody and legal guardianship are legal terms which are used to describe the legal and practical relationship between a parent and his or her child, such as the right of the child to make decisions and the parents’ duty to care for the child.

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Adoption is a process whereby a person assumes the parenting of another, usually a child, different from that person’s biological or legal parent or parents, and, in so doing, permanently transfers all rights and responsibilities, along with filiation, from the biological parent or parents.

Adoption can be closed and open.

To summarize, we want to say that family law consists of many different parts, that regulate behavior of all family’s members and regulate relations within fundamental social groups in society. A family is like a little country that needs its laws and rights, and family law offers it.

Е. А. Жукова

Terrorism

Terrorism in all forms, in different scale and intensity, in its inhumanity and cruelty refers to the number of dangerous crimes against public safety and public order. Terrorism has become one of the most important and major problems of global significance and different scientists give unfavorable forecasts about this question. Terrorism entails massive casualties, losing spiritual, material, cultural values, which are impossible to recreate for long time. It carries hatred and distrust between social and national groups. All peoples of the world must realize scale, the danger of it and take action against this inhumanity act.

Now, terrorism is very big problem of whole world and there’s no doubt, that this problem is the most important, topical and must be find a solution in short terms. Everybody must see the need for fight against terrorism!

Terrorism (synonyms of ”terror” (from latin terror ”fear, horror”) are the words ”violence”, ”intimidation”) means policy based on the systematic use of terror and with using or threating of action if this action may influence the government or intimidate the public or a section of the public for political, religious or ideological reasons. Terrorists often use firearms or explosives for their purposes. Terrorists may plan to interfere with or seriously disrupt an electronic system. Terrorists aren’t normal people — they are crazy, insane, irresponsible and ruthless. The meaning of their life it is their death for the greater blessing, for deity. It’s not normal. Now, terrorism has a big areal of widespread — it’s everywhere, covered all world.

Terrorism is a worldwide problem. This suggests that in this task should be involved not only individual specially created for this purpose, the anti-terrorist center or even law enforcement and intelligence agencies. To combat this global threat requires joint efforts of all government and public agencies, branches of government, the media. We need a strategy for fight against terrorism. It is necessary to clearly identify and name the sources and determinants of terrorist activity, among which, according to the expert poll conducted among the staff of divisions on fight against terrorism of the security agencies, may be: declining living standards, decreasing social protection, legal nihilism in society, the escalation of political struggle, the rise of nationalism and separatism, the imperfection of the legislation, the decline of authority and its acceptance by the representatives of the illconceived decisions. The breeding ground of terrorism and political extremism is growing, in turn, from explosive in our war-torn society social tension.

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Extermination of terrorism is a long process, involving the creation of the necessary objective and subjective conditions to achieve this goal. You cannot destroy terrorism by fighting the terrorists with the same means: violence inevitably begets violence. It is important to convince the public, all political forces that speculation on objective difficulties and contradictions, force their solution is a path leading to disaster.

It is necessary to create favorable conditions for uniform normal development of different ethnic groups and to ensure the realization of their interests, to prevent conflicts on ethnic grounds. The state’s task is to form all living in a country of such ethnic consciousness in which the sense of belonging to their state would have precedence over ethnicity in the process of self-identification of citizens.

Some meetings and treaties at the highest level is not enough to eradicate terrorism. In order to effectively counter international terrorism required the development and implementation of a comprehensive program, including political, social, economic, legal, ideological, and other special aspects. It must be taken into account the interests of the people, the problems and the conflict potential of terrorism around the world. Also need the cooperation and coordination of all forces of society interested in addressing this important issue.

One of the most important activities of the heads of state should be a joint cooperation for the prevention, containment and termination of regional outbreaks of extremism and conflicts caused by terrorists, can cause destabilization in other States.

In Argentina:

601th reconnaissance battalion (Spanish Batallón de Inteligencia 601) is a special unit Argentina, disbanded in 2000. Unit sadly became famous in the period of the Dirty war through its activities. The battalion was kidnapped, tortured and killed hundreds of people. In the period from 1980 to 1982, soldiers of the battalion engaged in military training to the Nicaraguan contras at a military base Lepaterique in Honduras using the ”Argentine experience in the fight against communism”. Help the “contras” from Argentina was discontinued in 1982 after the Falklands conflict (in which the US supported the UK).

In Israel:

”Operation Four species” — the operation of the Israeli Navy held in the night of November 3 to 4, 2009, in the waters of the Mediterranean sea. As a result of the operation was intercepted the cargo vessel ”Francop”, which went under the flag of Antigua and Barbuda. On Board were discovered hundreds of tons of weapons.

In Pakistan:

The origins of ”al Qaeda” refers to the beginning of the war in Afghanistan, but rather to the reaction of the USA to the Soviet invasion of this middle Eastern state. The US has seen the emergence of Soviet troops at the borders of Pakistan as a blatant case of Soviet expansionism and aggression. The response was a ”Cyclone” operation, during which the U.S. sent financial aid to the Afghan mujahideen by the Interagency Pakistani intelligence. In 2000, Secret intelligence service found that ISL has participated in the activities of the training camps of al-Qaeda. In 2012, during Osama bin Laden’s elimination operation there were captured the documents which showed that there has been subject of meeting between bin Laden and Pakistani intelligence.

In USA:

HRT FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation Hostage Rescue Team) is an elite antiterrorist special unit of the Federal Bureau of investigation (FBI). The Hostage Rescue team was founded in 1982 by Danny Coulson and completed certification in 1983. In HRT originally had 50 soldiers, but this number increased to more than 90. HRT typically operates as a Federal SWAT team in the riskiest and most dangerous situations.

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Russian Federation:

”Vityaz” is the 1st red banner special purpose unit of the internal troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia, which existed until September 1, 2008. Structurally, the squad entered into a separate division of operational purpose. One of the main tasks of the detachment was to fight terrorism and liberation of hostages. The character feature of the fighters is the maroon beret. On September 1, 2008, on the basis of the ”Vityaz” unit, by merging with the ”Rus” special purpose detachment, the 604th special purpose Center of internal troops of the MIA of Russia was formed.

”Vyatich” is the 15th special purpose internal troops detachment of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation. The squad is fully transferred to a contract basis. The squad is entrusted with the following tasks: the participation in the disarmament and liquidation of illegal armed groups, organized criminal groups, suppression of mass disorders attended with armed violence, the withdrawal of unlicensed weapons; taking part in the suppression of acts of terrorism; the participation in the elimination of persons who captured hostages, critical state facilities, exceptional loads, lines of communications, or state authorities buildings; the participation in protection of officers and citizens of the Russian Federation in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation.

The tragic results of terrorism, which characterize this phenomenon of current policies, should serve as an important warning to all political forces that attempt to solve political, economic and other problems through violence are not conducive to solving problems, but rather aggravate and aggravation of contradictions in society. We need to take action against this inhumanity all together!

М. Н. Зайцева

Ned Kelly: Australian Robin Hood

Ned Kelly and his gang roamed the Australian bushland of Victoria and New South Wales from 1878 to 1880. They robbed two banks, killed 3 policemen, captured 2 whole towns and soon became national heroes. The Kelly gang included Ned and his younger brother Dan, John Byorne and Steve Hart.

The Kelly family had come to Australia from Ireland. When the Irish immigrants arrived, there was no land for them to settle. All the good land had already been taken by few people who had money. Some poorer families like the Kellys felt that some of the Australia’s riches should be theirs and they took to stealing horses and cattle.

Ned first got into trouble with the law when he was only 14. He and his family used to steal horses, re-brand them and sell them. The owners of the horses offered large rewards for Kelly’s arrest. But no one was interested in betraying him and helping these rich men, so Kelly remained free. After the Kelly gang killed a policeman the police were in arms, too. By then the Kelly gang were heroes of the poor. Poems and songs were written and thousands of postcards with the pictures of the gang were sold.

THE SHOOTING OF CONSTABLE FITZPATRICK

Ned’s real troubles with the police began when his mother was arrested for the shooting of constable Fitzpatrick, who was later dismissed from the police force as “a liar and a larrikin“. Fitzpatrick was in charge of the Greta police station for a few days and had been warned to

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stay away from the Kellys — a warning he ignored, boasting in several hotels that he would fix the Greta mob.

Fitzpatrick headed out to arrest Dan Kelly for alleged horse stealing; Dan having just returned home from gaol. At the hut, Fitzpatrick assaulted Kate, Ned’s older sister. During this affray, Ellen Kelly shot Fitzpatrick in the wrist but because she wanted to avoid any repercussions, tended Fitzpatrick’s wounds, fed him, gave him something to drink and sent him on his way, with an understanding that no more would be said.

Fitzpatrick returned to the police station with a different story which involved being hit on the head with a shovel, an ambush by Kelly sympathizers and being shot at three times by Ned Kelly. Ned Kelly was 400 miles away at the time. Ellen Kelly was sentenced by judge Redmond Barry to 3 years in gaol with a breastfeeding infant, for attempted murder of constable Fitzpatrick.

While Ned Kelly didn’t try to break into Beechworth gaol to rescue his mother as planned, he offered an ultimatum to the government of the day: (presentation).

Finally, the Kelly gang was destroyed. The gang were holding 60 hostages inside the Glenrowan Hotel. Kelly was dressed in home-made armour. It weighed 40 kg and was about 15 kg heavier and much clumsier than the armour medieval knights wore. Kelly could hardly hold up his gun to fire it. Still, Ned Kelly who faced all the police, was the only gang member to survive the siege and the burning of the inn. He had 28 bullet wounds. But he recovered — only to be hanged 5 months later at the age of 25.

His last words were: ”Such is life”.

Ю. С. Иноземцева

Environmental law

Environmental law is a set of laws — a system of complex and interconnected legislation, common law, treaties, conventions, regulations, and policies — that seeks to moderate or remove the actual or projected harm to natural environment caused by human activities. Environmental law as a distinct system arose in the 1960s in the major industrial economies as it was becoming clear that the aggregate negative environmental effects of human activities were becoming unsustainable in the long run. This new area of law was repeatedly hampered by a lack of both institutions.

Environmentallawreliesontherecognitionofanewattitudeofpeopletotheenvironment, a relation in which humans distinctly appreciate the biosphere no longer assuming that the environment’s nature capital can be either freely consumed or eternally used for dumping wastes. The occurrence of environmental law in the twentieth century noted a radical shift in human consciousness toward ultimate recognition that humanity is one family connected to each other and jointly responsible for the use of the environment without destroying it. With many people still committed to their right to exploit the environment to their own needs without regard for larger, cumulative effects, environmental law and the institutions supporting its execution are still under development.

Environmental laws may aim to regulate policy locally, statewide (or in the province), nationally, or internationally. International environmental law is a subject of environmental law and refers to the body of international law that concerns protection of the global environment.

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Environmental law is one of several methods of protecting the environment. Other avenues include environmental education, the use of economic incentives (ecotourism, debt exchange for conservation), and a paradigm shift in the way businesses value and optimize the use of the full spectrum of environmental resources, including air, water and land. Utilizing humanity’s religious traditions and spiritual dimension offers another venue for advancing environmental protection as people can be encouraged to be stewards of creation even when there is no law or no one is watching.

As with each method of protecting the environment, the use of environmental law has its shortcomings. For one, laws and regulations can lack effectiveness due to the difficulty of law enforcement. For example, the Pantanal — an immense wetland located in South America — is protected by many environmental regulations; however, there often is poor enforcement of those regulations given the region’s remoteness and vast size. In addition, environmental laws and regulations are often enacted subsequent to undesirable consequences that have already occurred. Many environmental regulations have been enacted worldwide to protect wetlands; however, this comes after about 50 percent of the world’s wetlands have already been destroyed.

Environmental law has been criticized for restricting the rights of private property and even contravening national sovereignty; implicit in such laws is the view that protecting the environment is a public responsibility to which lesser private and national interests must bend. The interdependence of all creatures (including humans) in the web of life requires an ethic of ”shared ownership”, linking individual rights with public responsibility to the environment; and by the same token, linking the sovereignty of nations with the greater responsibility to protect the planet Earth.

П. С. Исакова

Online social networks: legal aspects

We chose this topic because nowadays it is of particular relevance due to the growing popularity of social networks and their rapid spread, mass involvement in the global social and political processes.

In connection with the rapid development of Internet communication the problem occurs on a unified definition of social online networks in order to achieve legal basis.

Today there is much debate about what Internet is from a legal point of view. It is possible to allocate two groups of people who express opinions on this matter. One group of experts believes that the Internet is such an environment in which law is not applicable. The second group believes that the right to the Internet will take its rightful place, you only need to consider the peculiarities of copyright law where the participants enter into a relationship leading to legal consequences.

The Federal law of July 27, 2006, No. 149 ”On information, information technologies and protection of information” contains a definition of ”site”. The main emphasis in this definition is given on three components: content (the information content), technical (software) and the domain name of the network address.

According to the definition proposed by the famous explorer of this region D. Boyd, a social Internet network is ”network services that allow individuals to: 1) construct public or semipublic profiles within the constraints imposed by the system, 2) identify a list of other

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