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Особое внимание уделяется

В заключении автор говорит (сообщает).

People have tried to make some written messages secret from the time that writing developed. There are many examples of that in stone drawings, different tablets and papyruses showing that ancient Egyptians, Babylonians and Assyrians all invented special systems to cipher* and decipher information. In fact the Greeks were the inventors of the first cipher. During the 4th century ВС Aeneas Tactucus wrote a work in which one chapter was devoted to cryptography, that was initially concerned with providing secrecy for written messages. Another Greek, Polybius, invented a device with the help of which it was possible to use alternative ways of writing letters. He proposed to use other symbols instead of letters or change the position of letters to encode them.

The Romans proposed to change the position of letters in the alphabet to cipher written messages. Julius Caesar used a change of three positions so that the original message A was enciphered as D, while Augustus Caesar applied a change of one position and the original letter A was encoded as B.

The first people to clearly understand the principles of cryptography were the Arabs. As a result, by about 1412 they could make visible contributions to cryptographic systems by giving complete instructions on how to encode the text with a great amount of illustrations.

As for European cryptology it dates from the Middle Ages. The first European record of

it (1379) was made by Gabriele de Vavinde, who served Pope VII. Then the first short code vocabularies appeared and by I860 large codes and cypher systems were in common use for diplomatic and military communications. In the history of the United States codes and book ciphers were widely used in the Civil War by the Federal Army.

Вариант №2

I. Переведите текст на русский язык.

What is management?

Peter Drucker, the well-known American business professor and consultant, suggests that the work of a manager can be divided into planning (setting objectives), organizing, integrating (motivating and communicating), measuring, and developing people. First of all, managers (especially senior managers such as company chairmen - and women -and directors) set objectives, and decide how their organization can achieve them. This involves developing strategies, plans and precise tactics, and allocating resources of people and money. Secondly, managers organize. They analyse and classify the activites of the organization and the relations among them. They divide the work into manageable activites and then into individual jobs. They select people to manage these units and perform the jobs.

Thirdly, managers practise the social skills of motivation and communication. They also have to communicate objectives to the people responsible for attaining them. They have to make the people who are responsible for performing individual jobs form teams. They make decisions about pay and promotion. As well as organizing and supervising the work of their subordinates, they have to work with people in other areas and functions.

Fourthly, managers have to measure the performance of their staff, to see whether the objectives set for the organization as a whole and for each individual member of it are being achieved.

Lastly, managers develop people - both their subordinates and themselves.

II. Определите, к каким частям речи относятся слова одного корня, затем переведите слова.

Office, officer, official; province, provincial; special, specialist; collect, collective, collection; essence, essential; intellect, intellectual; mix, mixture; nature, natural; democrat, democracy, democratic; form, formal, formality; qualify, qualification.

* - шифровать