3. Society

Population estimates of that time vary but the number of people in Iron Age Great Britain could have been around three or four million with most concentrated densely in the agricultural lands of the south. Settlement density and a land shortage may have contributed to rising tensions during the period. Between c. 400 and 100 BC there is evidence of emerging regional identities and a significant population increase.

3.1 Social Structure

The pre-Christian Celts had a well-organized social structure, based on class and kinship.

The society was divided into three groups:

• a warrior aristocracy;

• an intellectual class including druids, poets, and jurists;

• and everyone else.

All the offices of high and low kings were filled by election under the system of tanistry, both factors which would confuse Norman writers expecting the feudal principle of primogeniture where the succession goes to the first born son.

The Taniste was chosen from among the heads of the “roydammna” or “righdamhna” (literally, those of kingly material) or alternatively among all males of the sept, that is sometimes a family, but usually a clan (The term is found in both Ireland and Scotland), in question, and elected by them in full assembly. The electing body and the eligibles were agnates (relatives in an unbroken male line) with each other; actually the composition and the governance of the clan were built upon male-line descent from a common ancestor. In Ireland, this system remained fully in force among the main dynasties, as well as lesser lords and cheiftains, until the early 17th century. The Tainiste held office for life and was required by custom to be of full age, in possession of all his faculties and without any remarkable blemish of mind or body. So tanistry was a clearly agnatic succession mode, and a succession by appointment, being obviously an elective monarchy, not hereditary.

Every tuath or clan had its own law code, but this one from Ireland is fairly standard:

• a peasant had no legal identity beyond the kingdom where he lived;

• artists and learned individuals were exempt from the above rule;

• those who were bound to their kingdom like this were not free and in fact worked for the king;

• families owned land, not individuals;

• wealth was measured in cattle and determined a person's status;

• penalties for crimes were paid in cattle, and scaled to the status of the victim;

• there seems to be no death penalty, but exile was possible.

3.2 Warfare

The Iron Age in Britain has often been considered as a particularly warlike and violent time. However, the Iron Age was no more warlike and violent than other periods of the past. Iron Age people certainly did fight each other and wage war; being a warrior was probably important in the Iron Age.

Most well-known for us is the warrior class kept in the typically Celtic social structure of Ireland for many centuries. It was called the Fianna and was established by Conn Cétchathach one of high kings of Ireland. The Fianna comprised of many clans. Joining a band of Fianna was an acceptable way for people to "drop out" of society for a short time to resolve the developmental tasks of maturity. The Fianna were made up of members from many different tribes who travelled in bands of thousands across the country protecting the land from invaders. They traveled by horses. The Fianna's task was the defence of the coast, but patook of steeling from tribes to survive. They had a system of look-outs and signals posted on top of cliffs and at fords and passes of importance. However the signals used by the Fianna relied on a swipe across the nose or arm like that of the ogham (see ogham further and visualize the use of fingers as lines and the nose or arm as the base line). Signals were passed by relays of runners or by beacons at night.

The Fianna consisted mainly of adolescent with a few exceptions, such as the chieftans, and were obligated to give a certain number of their days in service to their chieftain after which they could return to home or other endeavors. The Fianna motto is "Truth in our hearts. Strength in our hands. Consistency in our tongues." When a new member enters the Fianna assurances are given by the parents that they will not retaliate or expect compensation if the child is killed. The Fianna promises that the family will not be held accountable for what the child or the Fianna do. A prospective Fianna must be well versed as a poet in the twelve books of bardic literature, to be considered.

The way people fought changed over the course of the Iron Age and was also probably different from one part of Britain to another. Some weapons were carefully decorated and made to the highest quality; others may even have been made for show, rather than for battle. Because it is unusual for people to throw weapons away, most of the swords, shields and spears that have survived are those placed in graves or in rivers, lakes and bogs.

Principal weapons used by Iron Age warriors in Britain were spears, shields and swords. The sling was also important. But there is no evidence that the bow and arrow were used for war in Britain at this time, nor for hunting. Different types and sizes of spears were used: some were javelins to be thrown; others were carried in the hand, sometimes sharp bone points were used.

Shields were usually made of wood, leather or hide and the only parts that are usually preserved are those of metal such as the boss or fittings. Different shapes of shield were in fashion at different times in the Iron Age. One of the best known examples from British Museum is the Battersea shield. It’s clear that it was not made for serious warfare. It is too short to provide sensible protection. The thin metal sheet and the complicated decoration would be easily destroyed if the shield was hit by a sword or spear. The highly polished bronze and glinting red glass would have made for a great spectacle. It was finally thrown or placed in the River Thames, where many weapons were offered as sacrifices in the Bronze Age and Iron Age.

Swords changed with fashion as well, but they may also have been influenced by changes in tactics. For example the Kirkburn Sword was buried with a man who was in his late 20s or early 30s when he died. He was an old man; very few Iron Age men lived to be older than 35 to 40. After the dead man was placed in the grave, three spears were thrust into his chest as part of the funeral ritual. Another man, of similar age, was buried in the same small cemetery, but with a chariot or cart. The iron blade of a sword needed great time and skill to make and the sword as a whole is an incredibly complicated weapon and piece of art. The handle of this sword is unusually elaborate. It is made of thirty-seven different pieces of iron, bronze and horn. After it was assembled, the handle was decorated with red glass. Length: 70 cm. Many swords were carried in decorated scabbards.

At hillforts, large numbers of sling stones have been found showing that the sling was probably an important weapon too.

Few Iron Age warriors in Britain appear to have worn armour or any kind: helmets were rare, so too was chain mail. There is a famous helmet of the period which was dredged from the River Thames. The person who wore the helmet would need a modern hat size of 7. It is the only Iron Age helmet to have ever been found in southern England, and it is the only Iron Age helmet with horns ever to have been found anywhere in Europe. Horns were often a symbol of the gods in different parts of the ancient world. This might suggest the person who wore this was a special person, or that the helmet was made for a god to wear. So we should never imagine an ordinary warrior wearing such a helmet!

The ancient Celts would typically go into battle painted with blue woad dye. The ancient writer Strabo describes their "military uniform".  The average warrior would go into battle naked, with gold torcs around their necks and bracelets on their wrists and arms.  In fact torcs were worn by men, never women after the very early parts of the La Tene period. Those of higher rank added heavily dyed clothing, which was flecked with gold.

There are no references to chariot battles in Caesar's campaigns until he reaches the Pretanic Isles.  He notes the extreme deftness and agility with which the charioteers handled their chariots. The chariots were a platform on wheels of iron which were almost 3' in diameter.  This was linked by a bar and yolk to 2 horses or ponies.  The only sides were 2 small wood hoops on both the right and the left of the platform.  Pausanias describes a trimarcisia of a noble and 2 attendants.

As Romans came to Britain in 55 BC and faced the Celtic troops in a battle they gave the following account of the Celtic cavalry attack that was novel to the Romans:

“Their mode of fighting with their chariots is this: firstly, they drive about in all directions and throw their weapons and generally break the ranks of the enemy with the very dread of their horses and the noise of their wheels; and when they have worked themselves in between the troops of horse, leap from their chariots and engage on foot. The charioteers in the mean time withdraw some little distance from the battle, and so place themselves with the chariots that, if their masters are overpowered by the number of the enemy, they may have a ready retreat to their own troops”.

The Celts had special training for its warriors - from the stories of Cuchulainn we know that there were at least 27 combat maneuvers that were taught.  Names of these acts have come down to us today as the Apple Feat, the Leap Over Poison and the Noise Feat of Nine.