3. Religious Beliefs

3.1 Paganism

The indigenous pre-Christian belief system of the Anglo-Saxons was a form of Germanic paganism and therefore closely related to Norse mythology, as well as other Germanic pre-Christian cultures.

Christianity (both Celtic and Roman) replaced the indigenous religion of the Saxons in England around the 8th and 9th centuries. As the new clerics became the chroniclers, the old religion was systematically lost before it was recorded and today our knowledge of it is largely based on surviving texts, etymological links and archaeological finds.

One of the few recorded references is that a Kentish King would only meet the missionary St. Augustine in the open air, where he would be under the protection of the sky god, Woden. Written Christian prohibitions on acts of paganism are one of our main sources of information on pre-Christian beliefs.

Remnants of the Anglo-Saxon gods remain in the English language names for days of the week:

• Tiw, the Anglo-Saxon equivalent of Tyr, the god of war: Tuesday

• Woden, the Anglo-Saxon equivalent of Odin, the one-eyed wise god of storms and the dead: Wednesday

• Þunor, the Anglo-Saxon equivalent of Thor, the thunder god: Thursday

• Frige, the Anglo-Saxon equivalent of Freya, the love-goddess: Friday

The pattern of Heathen (that is the right word to apply, rather than “pagan”) beliefs may have included Wyrd, usually translated as "fate". They also believed in supernatural creatures such as elves, dwarves and giants (Etins) who often brought harm to men. However, Anglo-Saxon words containing the element "elf" were often translations of Greek or Latin terms (for example, a "wæterelf" for "nymph").

The Anglo-Saxons were a largely illiterate society and tales were orally transmitted between groups and tribes by the Anglo-Saxon travelling minstrels, the scops, in the form of verse. Since the Anglo-Saxon religion was cut short around the 8th century and there is a lack of written material, it is not wholly justifiable to ascribe to the Anglo-Saxon gods, about whom little is known other than their names, the same attributes and activities that are recorded for the gods in the Norse mythology. But it’s reasonable to get some basic facts about the latter.

There are two groups of gods in Norse mythology:

1. The more well-known is the Ése corresponding to the Norse Æsir:

• Woden, the leader of the Wild Hunt and the one who carries off the dead. He was one of the chief gods of the Angles and Saxons before the Christian era. He was held to be the ancestor of Hengist and Horsa, two legendary figures from early English history and most of the early Anglo-Saxon kings claimed descent from Woden. He gives us the modern Wednesday ("Woden's day"). His name is related to óðr, meaning "excitation," "fury" or "poetry," and his role, like many of the Norse pantheon, is complex: he is god of wisdom, war, battle and death. He is also attested as being a god of magic, poetry, prophecy, victory, and the hunt.

• Thunor, (Þunor). He is the god of thunder, who rules the storms and sky. He also protects mankind from the giants. He was the god of the common people within the heathen community. His name gives rise to the modern Thursday.

• Fríge is the goddess of love, and is the wife of Woden. She is one of the most powerful Goddesses, this position being threatened only by Freyja. Her day is Friday, due to her associations with Venus.

• Tiw (Tyr) is the god of warfare and battle, and gives us Tuesday. There is some speculation that he is a sky-god figure and formerly the chief god, displaced over the years by Woden.

2. Vanir (Wones) is the name of the other group:

• Ingui Fréa was one of the most popular Gods, after Thunor and Woden. He is above all the God of fertility, bringing abundance (“wone”) and fruitfulness to the crops, herds, and the Folk. Though he is a fertility God, he is also connected to warfare to a degree; however, this warfare is defensive, as opposed to offensive, and is not to create strife and havoc. After all, peace is necessary for a good harvest and a productive community, while needless warfare destroys any prospect of peace and abundance. The Yngling royal line of Sweden claimed descent from him.

• Freo is said to be the most beautiful of all the goddesses, and is therefore described as the Goddess of Love. She is not to be mistaken with Frige, however; Freo's dominion is erotic love, whereas Frige's is love expressed within marriage. Being a goddess of unbridled passion, it is not surprising that she also takes half the slain of the battlefield, with the other half taken by Woden. Like her brother, Fréa, she is connected to abundance and wealth; however, her wealth is primarily in precious metals and gems. She is also a Goddess of Magic, having taught Woden seiðr.

• Neorð is Frea and Freo's father, and is the God of the seas and commerce. He is called upon by fishermen and sailors who depend upon good seas. Like his son and daughter, his realm is that of wealth; namely, the wealth of the sea. He married the giantess Sceadu, though the marriage was not successful as neither of them could tolerate the other's element: Sceadu - his sea, and Neorð - her mountains.

• Eorðe, whose name means "Earth," is the wife of Woden, by whom she gave birth to Þunor. She is also the daughter of the Goddess Niht. Her worship is generally passive, as opposed to active, though she is called on for "might and main." Her latent strength can be seen in her son, Þunor.

• Eostre, according to Bede, is a Goddess tied with the "growing light of spring," and embodies purity, youth, and beauty, as well as the traditional rebirth and renewal concepts. Her symbols are hares and eggs, which symbolize the beginning of life and fertility. The current Christian festival of Easter is thought to contain elements of a pre-Christian festival in honour of Eostre; hence the name Easter.

• Niht is the Goddess of Night, and also the mother of Eorðe. The Norse night was the daughter of Narvi. She was married three times; the first to Naglfari by whom she had Aud; the second, to Annar by whom she had Eorðe; and the third to Dellinger Daeg.

• Sigel is the Goddess of the Sun, called Sunna by modern Heathens. Her day is, of course, Sunday.

The Heathen worship of gods and goddesses in pre-Christian England probably took place in sacred groves, upon hills and later maybe also walled and roofed temples. The Old English words for such places of worship are ealh/alh, heargh/hearh and lea/ley. It seems likely though that since earliest times open air groves in forests and hill sanctuaries were the main places of worship amongst the Anglo-Saxons and their ancestors, and this is backed up by the writings of Tacitus.

Venerable Bede also makes interesting references to places of Heathen worship in East Anglia and Northumbria. In East Anglia he tells us that a king called Redwald, who on trip to Kent, was partially converted to Christianity. And on his return set up a Christian altar, alongside the Heathen one in his temple.

What's very interesting about this tale told by Bede, is that it seems to give us an insight into what a Heathen temple or grove may have looked like when he talks about the temple with its altar and idols surrounded by enclosures. It's likely that, if the temple in question is a grove or woodland clearing, its construction may have consisted of an altar, possibly at the centre, or at one end of the grove, surrounded by the idols of gods and goddesses, which in turn are surrounded by the enclosures. The enclosures were probably there to protect the grove and separate it from the outside world, making the enclosed area sacred and holy. The enclosed idols were more than likely carved out of wood, maybe not too dissimilar to Native American totem poles, but not as elaborate.

There are many holy symbols in Anglo-Saxon religion, which are generally shared by all of Heathenry. Some of these symbols are:

• Swastika, also known as the Sun Cross or Fylfot, is generally indicative of the potential of the rising sun. For early Heathens, it was linked to Þunor and, as such, was probably a symbol closely related to lightning. Due to its early origins, instances of the Swastika in Indo-European and non-Indo-European culture are numerous.

• Boar is a symbol which is linked to Frey and Freya which symbolizes protection from harm. In particular, Heathens wear the insignia of the boar to attract the protection and blessings of Freya.

• Raven is a symbol of Woden, and is associated with victory during battle and death. The latter, Norse, equivalent of Woden had two ravens, named Huginn and Muninn, ("thought" and "memory") that travelled the world gaining information for him.

• Hammer of Þunor, also known as Mjollnir, symbolizes hallowing and the blessings of Þunor, the supremacy of the Ése, and the representation of Heathenry. It is a sacred tool, used by Þunor for hallowing, and also represents the survival of the Folk. Many people, both in the past and present, carry or wear hammer-shaped pendants to demonstrate their Heathen beliefs.

• Sun Wheel is a symbol designating the sun in its various positions throughout the year. It is also a symbol belonging to Woden, and is sometimes known as Woden's Cross.

Since Anglo-Saxon religion and its revival organizations are a subset of Heathenry in general, many of its central practices are also shared by other religions such as Asatru.

• Blót

November in Old English was known as blótmónað, as this passage points out:

Se mónaþ is nemned on Léden Novembris, and on úre geþeóde blótmónaþ, forðon úre yldran, ðá hý hǽðene wǽron, on ðam mónþe hý bleóton á, ðæt is, ðæt hý betǽhton and benémdon hyra deófolgyldum ða neát ða ðe hý woldon syllan.

"This month is called Novembris in Latin, and in our language the month of sacrifice, because our forefathers, when they were heathens, always sacrificed in this month, that is, that they took and devoted to their idols the cattle which they wished to offer." (trans. Joseph Bosworth)

It is significant to note that the English word "bless" comes from the word Blot, both of which signify blood, which denotes the sacrificial aspect.

• Symbel

A ritual drinking feast in which mystical revelation was achieved through drinking alcohol, usually mead. This mystical revelation is typically associated with divination and the quest for good fortune by alignment with the forces of destiny, the wyrd. The participants at Symbel other than the drinkers themselves were the symbelgifa, the giver of the symbel or host, the scop or poet,the alekeeper (the server of the ale), and the þyle who was charged with keeping order (to a greater or lesser extent).

• Husel

The Husel is a sacred feast in which the Folk gather to feast with their friends, ancestors, and Gods. It is a time of communing with one another, with the great heroes of the past, and the Gods of the Folk. It generally has the features of a blood sacrifice, libation, and communion feast. The process is begun with a Blot, or the slaughter of the animals for food. This was usually done by smothering or drowning, and the meat was boiled and prepared for the blessing. The alcohol and food were then hallowed by having the King pass it over a fire, and then performing the Hammer sign upon it to cause it to be sanctified. A toast was offered to Woden; to the King's health; then to Njord and Frey. The Bragafull, or King's toast, was then performed. The participants then drank to their dead kinsmen. The feast itself then began, and it is thought that afterwards, the remainder of the food was offered to the Gods, either by burning or by dumping into a sacred well.

Early Christian prohibitions on the Anglo-Saxon practice of magic in all its shapes and forms are particularly revealing of how strong a belief in the supernatural was held, and are the primary source for knowledge of Anglo-Saxon paganism: "If any wicca (witch), or wiglaer (wizard), or false swearer, or morthwyrtha (worshipper of the dead), or any foul contaminated, manifest horcwenan (whore), be anywhere in the land, they shall be driven out."

"We teach that every priest shall extinguish heathendom, and forbid wilweorthunga (fountain worship), and licwiglunga (incantations of the dead), and hwata (omens), and galdra (magic), and man worship, and the abominations that men exercise in various sorts of witchcraft, and in frithspottum (peace-enclosures) with elms and other trees, and with stones, and with many phantoms." (source: 16th Canon Law enacted under King Edgar in the 10th century)

It is possible to conclude that magical practice was rife, and that water, tree and stone worship in various forms were also practiced by the Anglo-Saxons. Interesting also is the mention of frithspottum, relating as it does to the core concept of frith, ostensibly meaning "peace" but having much deeper significance and a far broader spread of implications.

The two most common forms of burial in Heathen England were those of full body inhumation and cremation. Full body graves are very helpful for those people wishing to learn more about the Heathen period in England as those buried were usually done so with grave goods, usually treasured personal items. Men, especially if they were warriors, were buried with weapons such as a sword, a spear and a shield, whereas women were buried with items that seem to have held some form of healing or magical purpose to them, items such as a spoon bearing holes, possibly used as a kind of strainer, a pouch that may have held herbs, and also a small crystal ball. Such contrasting items from male and female graves maybe goes some way to showing the differing roles that men and women played in Heathen England, the men as the warrior and protector buried with his weapons, and the woman skilled in herbs and healing buried with the tools of her trade. Such women may have been the wicce that later Christians would condemn in their laws forbidding any form of Heathen practice, women that possibly performed charms such as the Nine Herbs Charm. These items were interred with their owners’ bodies so as when the deceased reached the afterlife they would still own and possess what was personal to them in life, and would therefore be able to carry on living their life and role even after death. And personal items were not restricted to full body burials, but have also been found within cremation urns too.

Food could have been buried so that the deceased would have something to eat during the journey there. Giving strength to the theory of a journey to the afterlife is that some Heathens were buried with what could be described as transport. The famous Sutton Hoo burial not only held personal possessions and food, but also an entire ship. For a coastal people such as the East Anglians the ship was of course a form of transport, so if such a vessel could transport a person from place to place during life, a belief may have developed that the ship could also transport the dead from life to the afterlife.