4.4 Ireland (Hibernia)

Ireland was never invaded by either the Romans or the Anglo-Saxons. It was a land of monasteries and had a flourishing Celtic culture. Like in Wales, people were known by the family grouping they belonged to. Outside their tribe they had no protection and no name of their own. They had only the name of their tribe. The kings in this tribal society were chosen by election. The idea was that the strongest man should lead. In fact the system led to continuous challenges. Five kingdoms grew up in Ireland: Ulster in the north, Munster in the southwest, Leinster in the southeast, Connaught in the west, with Tara as the seat of the high kings of Ireland.

5. Spreading of Christianity

As soon as we mention Ireland of the period we should turn to the topic of Christianity spreading over the British Isles.

It is not clear when Christianity came to Britain, or how. The earliest written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by Tertullian, in 200, that "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ". Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and fonts have been found at Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough. The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early fourth century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. Probably during the Christianizing of the empire under Constantine in the 4th century (Christianity was legalized in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313). But what is evident, that Christianity was first brought to the island of Ireland and the British Isles sometime after the Roman conquest.

It is called “Celtic Christianity” implying to be a form of Christianity as it was first received and practised by communities within Britain and Ireland that spoke Celtic languages. There is a real debate about the existence of some separate Celtic Church. In fact in the 4th century we find an apparently organized British Church, with bishops who represent it at the Council of Arles in 314: Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius, and certainly at Rimini in 359. This Church was evidently in close communication with the Church in Gaul, as may be inferred from the dedication to St. Martin of the two churches at Withern and at Canterbury, and from the mission of Victridius of Rouen in 396, and those of St. Germanus and St. Lupus in 429, and St. Germanus and St. Severus in 447, directed against that heresy of Pelagius which had its origin in Britain.

The struggle between orthodoxy and heresy was present in Britain as elsewhere in the empire. Pelagius was spreading his belief that original sin did not taint human nature (which, being created from God, was divine), and that mortal will is still capable of choosing between good and evil without Divine aid. Thus, Adam's sin was "to set a bad example" for his progeny, but his actions did not have the other consequences imputed to Original Sin. Pelagianism views the role of Jesus as "setting a good example" for the rest of humanity (thus counteracting Adam's bad example). In short, humanity has full control, and thus full responsibility, for its own salvation in addition to full responsibility for every sin (the latter insisted upon by both proponents and opponents of Pelagianism). According to Pelagian doctrine, since man is no longer in need of any of God's graces beyond the creation of his will the Sacrament of Baptism is devoid of the redemptive quality ascribed to it by orthodox Christians.

Some scholars have argued that Pelagius must have had a direct effect on the early development of the Celtic church in his homeland. Others, including Charles Thomas have countered that this belief is incorrect and based on projecting a modern point of view upon an earlier age.

Later, during the Middle Ages the subject of the arrival of Christianity in Britain let out an abundant legend linking Christianity’s arrival in Britain to Joseph of Arimathea. According to the Gospels, Joseph of Arimathea was the man who donated his own prepared tomb for the burial of Jesus after Jesus was crucified. The first connection of Joseph of Arimathea with Britain is found in the 9th century Life of Mary Magdalene by Rabanus Maurus (AD 766-856), Archbishop of Mayence. Rabanus states that Joseph of Arimathea was sent to Britain, and he goes on to detail who travelled with him as far as France.

The legend that Joseph was given the responsibility of keeping the Holy Grail (there is an artifact described as the Holy Grail kept in Valencia Cathedral) was the product of Robert de Boron, who essentially expanded upon stories from Acts of Pilate. In Boron's Joseph d'Arimathe, Joseph is imprisoned much as in the Acts, but it is the Grail that sustains him during his captivity. Upon his release he finds his company of followers, who take the Grail to Britain.

The origin of the association between Joseph and Britain is not entirely clear, but it is probably through this association that Boron attached him to the Grail. Interestingly, in the Lancelot-Grail Cycle, a vast Arthurian composition that took much from Boron, it is not Joseph but his son Josephus who is considered the primary holy man of Britain.

In none of the earliest references does this link appear. Later authors sometimes mistakenly or deliberately treated the Grail story as truth.

The mytheme of the staff that Joseph of Arimathea set in the ground at Glastonbury, which broke into leaf and flower as the Glastonbury Thorn is a common miracle in hagiography.

The Celtic cross, in which a symmetrical cross is superimposed on a circle, is a characteristic and distinctive Celtic Christian symbol. Use of this continued well past any separate organisation of Celtic Christianity, and has indeed never ceased to be common in the Celtic countries. There are some other minor differences from Roman Christian rites. In the period before the 8th century diversity of rites was a rule rather than an exception. Among the points specific to it is the cult of saints who have abundant hagiographies. By the way it is peculiar that Celtic Christians refused to prosecute witches as it was common in Europe.

Though the full extent or popularity of Christianity in Britain is unknown at the time the Roman army left around 410, it certainly continued in parts of sub-Roman Britain, though its administrative structure may have quickly disintegrated. Around 397, Saint Ninian is believed to have travelled from Cumbria (perhaps Carlisle) to Galloway to found Whithorn Priory. His work was continued by Saint Serf and Saint Kentigern. Saint Germanus, Bishop of Auxerre in Gaul, visited Britain in 429 and 447, and went to St Alban's Abbey and other religious centres. While Christianity died out completely in areas taken over by the pagan Anglo-Saxons, it expanded throughout the Celtic regions to become the accepted religion of the Brythons.

Wales became Christian, and the "age of the saints" (approximately 500–700) was marked by the establishment of monastic settlements throughout the country. Among its religious leaders were Saint David, Illtud and Teilo. Saint David (c. 500–589) (known in Welsh as Dewi Sant) was a church official, later regarded as a saint and as the patron saint of Wales. David contrasts with other national patron saints such as England's St George, in that relatively much is known about his life.

The flourishing of Christianity in Wales was largely due to a succession of princes who became monastic priests during the 5th and 6th centuries, founding many abbeys and churches, and becoming honoured as 'saints' after their death. A good example is Saint Dubricius, who was supposedly raised to be Archbishop of Wales by St. Germanus, with his base at Caerleon. In this capacity, he is said to have consecrated St. Deiniol as Bishop of Bangor Fawr and to have crowned the High King Arthur at Caer Fudi (variously thought to be Silchester or Woodchester).

Another prominent example is Cadog Ddoeth, king of Gwynllwg & Penychen, who was named the Wise and was one of the greatest of the Welsh Saints. He was the eldest son of King Gwynllyw Farfog (the Bearded) of Gwynllwg and his wife, Gwladys, born at Gwynllwgat Bochriwcarn in Gelligaer, around 497, and baptised "Cadfael" by St. Tathyw. At a young age he was sent away to be educated by this Irish saint at his monastery in Caerwent. Later, he left to become a wandering hermit in Penychen, the kingdom of his uncle, Pawl. His presence was reported to the king by a swineherd whose pigs Cadog had disturbed. King Pawl presented his nephew with the valley where these pigs fed, and here the young saint built his famous monastery of Llancarfan.

Some, like Samson (Bishop of Dol, 485-565) and Paul Aurelian, spread the Celtic Christian word across the English Channel in Brittany. St. Samson was the son of Prince Amon the Black of Brittany by St. Anna of Oxenhall. He soon moved on to Brittany – via the Channel Islands – where he founded the monasteries at Dol (Brittany) and Pental (Normandy).

Others, like Petroc (a younger son of King Glywys Cernyw of Glywysing) and the many sons and daughters of King Brychan of Brycheiniog, went to Cornwall and the West Country. This was also a popular place of evangelism for Irish royalty, such as Piran, Ia or Brigit.

Christianity came to Ireland in about 430. The beginning of Ireland's history dates from that time, because for the first time there were people who could write down events. The Irish kingdoms, their chiefs and their genealogies began to emerge from the mist of 'pre-history'.

The message of Christianity was spread in Ireland by a British slave, Patrick, who became the "patron saint" of Ireland. Saint Patrick, who probably hailed from the same area as Ninian, was an active missionary in Ireland around 432 AD, establishing himself in Armagh as 'Apostle of Ireland'; though he had, in fact, been preceded by Saint Palladius. Palladius seems to have worked purely as Bishop to Irish Christians in the Leinster and Meath kingdoms, while Patrick – who is now believed to have arrived as late as 461 – worked first and foremost as a missionary to the Pagan Irish, converting in the more remote kingdoms located in Ulster and Connacht. Christianity brought writing, which weakened the position of the Druids, who depended on memory and the spoken word. Christian monasteries grew up, frequently along the coast.

This period is often called Ireland's "golden age". Invaders were unknown and culture flourished. But it is also true that the five kingdoms were often at war, each trying to gain advantage over the other, often with great cruelty. The era of the middle 4th to the middle 5th centuries is an important time in Ireland's early tradition. New kingdoms were formed and new dynasties created, which extend into the historical period, the foundations were set for Christianity to have a dramatic and permanent impact on the 'pagan' inhabitants of the island. Patrick proceeded to baptize and bless the Irish, men, women, sons, and daughters, except a few who did not consent to receive faith or baptism from him, as his Life relates. Patrick's method of carrying the new faith to the Gaelic Celts was to meet them on the familiar ground of their own culture, the sacred groves, wells, and mounds, and making those places centers of worship for the new faith. He used the same holy places designated by the Druids of Ireland to establish his Christian churches and holy places. The stage was set for a monastic and literary tradition which would set Ireland apart from many other 'European' countries during the coming 'Dark Ages'. Patrick is traditionally credited with preserving the tribal and social patterns of the Irish, codifying their laws and changing only those that conflicted with Christian practices. He is also credited with introducing the Roman alphabet, which enabled Irish monks to preserve parts of the extensive Celtic oral literature. The historicity of these claims remains the subject of debate. That Patrick had a profound impact on early medieval Ireland is evident, but there were Christians in Ireland long before Patrick came, and pagans long after he died around 461. And for many years after his death, various kings of Ireland refused to accept the new religion and made attempts to continue their pagan practices. This finally ended when the last of the pagan kings was killed in battle in 561.

The abbeys became centers of learning as well as churches, teaching Patrick’s followers the essentials of reading and writing Greek and Latin, laying the foundation of Irish scholasticism that would make the Church in Ireland a repository of learning during the Dark Ages that were to come. The new faith spread rapidly and by the 6th century, Ireland was a stronghold of the new faith, with newly built monasteries and abbeys.

Missionaries from Ireland to England and Continental Europe spread news of the flowering of learning, and scholars from other nations came to Irish monasteries. The excellence and isolation of these monasteries helped preserve Latin learning during the Early Middle Ages. The arts of manuscript illumination, metalworking, and sculpture flourished and produced such treasures as the Book of Kells.

The Book of Kells is the high point of a group of manuscripts produced from the late 6th through the early 9th centuries in monasteries in Ireland, Scotland and northern England and in continental monasteries with Irish or English foundations. The book had a sacramental, rather than educational purpose. A large, lavish Gospel, such as the Book of Kells would have been left on the high altar of the church, and taken off only for the reading of the Gospel during Mass. However, it is probable that the reader would not actually read the text from the book, but rather recite from memory.

There is also a lot of ornate jewelry, and the many carved stone crosses left in the island.

The documentary evidence places the scholars of Irish monastic schools at an academic pinnacle, and there seems to be little doubt of the contributions made by the scribes and monks in preserving the written heritage of the West. The flowering of literature and learning in early Ireland is firmly linked with the rise of Christian monastic schools which came into prominence in the latter half of the 6th century.

From these monastic centers Irish missionaries were to establish religious centers of learning in other parts of Europe.Among the early missionaries was Colum Cille (Columba), who went toIona, off the coast of Scotland, around 563 to convert the Picts. Columbanus went to Gaul (France) around 591, and later into other parts of Europe, to establish monastic schools. Fursa went to East Anglia (England) and Gaul around 633 to establish Irish foundations of learning. Aidan became the first bishop of Lindisfarne in Northumbria about 635.

The date at which Pictish kings converted to Christianity is uncertain, but there are traditions which place Saint Palladius in Pictland after leaving Ireland, and link Abernethy with Saints Brigid and Darlugdach of Kildare. The process of establishing Christianity throughout Pictland must have extended over a long period. Pictland was not solely influenced by Iona and Ireland. It also had ties to churches in England, as seen in the reign of Nechtan mac Der Ilei. Nonetheless, the evidence of place names suggests a wide area of Ionan influence in Pictland. The cult of Saints was, as throughout Christian lands, of great importance in later Pictland. While kings might have patronised great Saints, many lesser Saints, some now obscure, were important. It appears, as is well known in later times, that noble kin groups had their own patron saints, and their own churches or abbeys.

The spread of Celtic Christianity also helped to unite the people in Scotland. The first Christian mission to Scotland had come to southwest Scotland in about 400. Later, in 563, Columba, known as the "Dove of the Church", came from Ireland. Through his work both Highland Scots and Picts were brought to Christianity. He even, so it is said, defeated a monster in Loch Ness, the first mention of this famous creature. By the time of the Synod of Whitby in 663, the Picts, Scots and Britons had all been brought closer together by Christianity.

One part of Britain, indeed, derived a great part of its Christianity from post-Patrician Irish missions. St. Ia and her companions, and St. Piran, St. Sennen, St. Petrock, and the rest of the Irish saints who came to Cornwall in the late fifth and early sixth centuries found there, at any rate in the West, a population which had perhaps relapsed into Paganism under the Pagan King Teudar. When these saints introduced, or reintroduced, Christianity, they probably brought with them whatever rites they were accustomed to.

The history of Christianity in England from the Roman departure to the Norman Conquest is often told as one of conflict between the Celtic Christianity, which had survived with the native Brythons, and Roman Catholic Christianity brought across by Augustine of Canterbury. Ultimately, though, it was more of a creative symbiosis.

Lecture 5 Anglo-Saxon Britain (3 h.)