Гольцева О.Ю. Международное право в официальных документах. Под ред. И.А. Горшеневой

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Exercise 10. Read the text again and find the English equivalents for these word combinations.

Быть непреклонным, невозможно политически, политическая воля, согласовать новый всеобщий договор, без дальнейших ограничений, порог, стороны, придерживающиеся противоположного мнения, в трудной ситуации, полноценный договор, готовить проект, содержать уступки, сократить выбросы, спорное соглашение, быть вызванным естественными процессами, подтвердить соглашение, дополнительное замечание, стать спасением.

Exercise 11. Cover the article above and fill in the appropriate prepositions.

1.___ further constraints soon, it will be very difficult to keep the rise ___ average global temperatures ___ preindustrial times ___ 2C.

2.A pattern ___ change affecting global or regional climate may be caused ___ both natural processes and human activity.

3.The US administration is skeptical ___ the ability to get a full-blown legal deal that replaces the Kyoto Protocol or builds ___ it.

4.UN climate convention should be the sovereign body ___

international climate talks.

5.The US was pressing small countries ___ endorsing the accord, claiming they would not be eligible ___ financial help ___ rich nations.

6.the EU is preparing to give ground ___ one ___ further emissions cuts ___ rich countries to be made ___ the Kyoto Protocol.

7.If more countries ___ the EU take this position, that could be the foundation ___ something that could be a salvation ___ this situation".

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LESSON 12

THE THREAT OF TERRORISM AND FASCISM Starting up

Comment on the following quotation. Do you agree with the ideas expressed? Whose official policy do you think it is?

"Shoot first, ask questions later. Wanted: Dead or alive. Such is our official policy regarding Osama bin Laden, the most infamous outlaw of the era".

http://tinyfrog.wordpress.com

Discuss the following questions.

1.What is terrorism, in your opinion? Can you think of a definition of terrorism?

2.Is terrorism “religiously” coloured?

3.What are the forms of terrorism?

4.Why do you think it exists?

5.Is it possible to stop or prevent it? What are the ways of combating terrorism?

6.There is an opinion that one of the main terrorist threats for the world is still Al Qaeda. Do you agree with it?

Exercise 1. Read the text. What is understood by

“preemption” in this text? Why is it considered to be important? Do you agree with it?

What is Terrorism?

Terrorism is not new, and even though it has been used since the beginning of recorded history it can be relatively hard to define. Terrorism has been described variously as both a tactic and strategy; a crime and a holy duty; a justified reaction to oppression and an inexcusable abomination. Obviously, a lot depends on whose point of view is being represented. Terrorism has often been an effective

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tactic for the weaker side in a conflict. As an asymmetric form of conflict, it confers coercive power with many of the advantages of military force at a fraction of the cost. Due to the secretive nature and small size of terrorist organizations, they often offer opponents no clear organization to defend against or to deter.

That is why preemption is being considered to be so important. In some cases, terrorism has been a means to carry on a conflict without the adversary realizing the nature of the threat, mistaking terrorism for criminal activity. Because of these characteristics, terrorism has become increasingly common among those pursuing extreme goals throughout the world. But despite its popularity, terrorism can be a nebulous concept. Even within the U.S. Government, agencies responsible for different functions in the ongoing fight against terrorism use different definitions.

The United States Department of Defense defines terrorism as “the calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or ideological”. Within this definition, there are three key elements—violence, fear, and intimidation—and each element produces terror in its victims. The FBI uses this: "Terrorism is the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives". The U.S. Department of State defines "terrorism" to be "premeditated politically-motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience.

Outside the United States Government, there are greater variations in what features of terrorism are emphasized in definitions. The United Nations produced this definition in 1992: "An anxiety-inspiring method of repeated violent

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action, employed by (semi-) clandestine individual, group or state actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal or political reasons, whereby – in contrast to assassination – the direct targets of violence are not the main targets." The most commonly accepted academic definition starts with the U.N. definition quoted above, and adds two sentences totaling another 77 words on the end; containing such verbose concepts as "message generators" and 'violence based communication processes." Less specific and considerably less verbose, the British Government definition of 1974 is "…the use of violence for political ends, and includes any use of violence for the purpose of putting the public, or any section of the public, in fear".

Terrorism is a criminal act that influences an audience beyond the immediate victim. The strategy of terrorists is to commit acts of violence that draws the attention of the local populace, the government, and the world to their cause. The terrorists plan their attack to obtain the greatest publicity, choosing targets that symbolize what they oppose. The effectiveness of the terrorist act lies not in the act itself, but in the public’s or government’s reaction to the act. For example, in 1972 at the Munich Olympics, the Black September Organization killed 11 Israelis. The Israelis were the immediate victims. But the true target was the estimated 1 billion people watching the televised event.

Exercise 2. Find the English equivalents for the following word combinations.

Святой долг, оправданная реакция на угнетение, отвратительная вещь, которой нет оправдания, сила принуждения, право первой руки/ преимущественное право, без противника, преследовать экстремистские цели, неясная концепция, насаждать страх, вынуждать и запугивать, преследуя политические цели, применять насилие против гражданских лиц, тайная группа, многословное определение, отнюдь не только непосредственная жертва, местное население.

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Exercise3. Complete these sentences.

1.Terrorism has been described variously as both _____

2.Preemption is being considered to be so important because ___________

3.The United States Department of Defense defines terrorism as ________

4.The FBI uses the following definition _____________

5.The U.S. Department of State defines "terrorism" to be _____________

6.The United Nations produced this definition ________

7.The most commonly accepted academic definition is __

8.The strategy of terrorists is _____________________

9.The effectiveness of the terrorist act lies in ________

Exercise 4. Debate these questions.

1.Why do you think there are such a variety of terrorism definitions?

2.Which of the definitions do you like most? Give your reason?

3.What objectives do terrorists pursue?

4.Why do their attacks turn out to be so effective?

5.What measures should be taken to suppress terror, in your opinion?

Exercise 5. Analyze different definitions of state involvement in terror presented in the text. Why does this difference exist? What definition do you consider to be the most appropriate and why?

State involvement

Three different ways that states can engage in the use of terror are:

•Governmentalor "State" terror

•Stateinvolvementinterror

•Statesponsorshipofterrorism

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Governmental or "State" terror: Sometimes referred to as "terror from above", where a government terrorizes its own population to control or repress them. These actions usually constitute the acknowledged policy of the government, and make use of official institutions such as the judiciary, police, military, and other government agencies. Changes to legal codes permit or encourage torture, killing, or property destruction in pursuit of government policy. After assuming power, official Nazi policy was aimed at the deliberate destruction of "state enemies" and the resulting intimidation of the rest of the population. Stalin's "purges" of the 1930s are examples of using the machinery of the state to terrorize a population. The methods he used included such actions as rigged show trials of opponents, punishing family or friends of suspected enemies of the regime, and extra-legal use of police or military force against the population.

Saddam Hussein used chemical weapons on his own Kurdish population without any particular change or expansion of policies regarding the use of force on his own citizens. They were simply used in an act of governmental terror believed to be expedient in accomplishing his goals.

State involvement in terror: These are activities where government personnel carry out operations using terror tactics. These activities may be directed against other nations' interests, its own population, or private groups or individuals viewed as dangerous to the state. In many cases, these activities are terrorism under official sanction, although such authorization is rarely acknowledged openly. Historical examples include the Soviet and Iranian assassination campaigns against dissidents who had fled abroad, and Libyan and North Korean intelligence operatives downing airliners on international flights.

Another type of these activities is "death squads" or "war veterans": unofficial actions taken by officials or functionaries of a regime (such as members of police or intelligence

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organizations) against their own population to repress or intimidate. While these officials will not claim such activities, and disguise their participation, it is often made clear that they are acting for the state. Keeping such activities "unofficial" permits the authorities deniability and avoids the necessity of changing legal and judicial processes to justify oppression. This is different than "pro-state" terror, which is conducted by groups or persons with no official standing and without official encouragement. While pro-state terror may result in positive outcomes for the authorities, their employment of criminal methods and lack of official standing can result in disavowal and punishment of the terrorists, depending on the morality of the regime in question.

State sponsorship of terrorism: Also known as "state supported" terrorism, when governments provide supplies, training, and other forms of support to non-state terrorist organizations. One of the most valuable types of this support is the provision of safe haven or physical basing for the terrorists' organization. Another crucial service a state sponsor can provide is false documentation, not only for personal identification (passports, internal identification documents), but also for financial transactions and weapons purchases. Other means of support are access to training facilities and expertise not readily available to groups without extensive resources. Finally, the extension of diplomatic protections and services, such as immunity from extradition, diplomatic passports, use of embassies and other protected grounds, and diplomatic pouches to transport weapons or explosives have been significant to some groups.

An example of state sponsorship is the East German Stasi providing support and safe-haven to members of the Red Army Faction and neo-fascist groups that operated in West Germany. Wanted members of the RAF were found resident in East Germany after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989.

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Exercise 6. Fill in the appropriate prepositions

1.Governmental "State" terror is referred ___ as "terror from above", where a government terrorizes its own population ___ control or repress them, making use ___ official institutions such ___ the judiciary, police, military.

2.State involvement ___ terror is the activities where government personnel carry ___ operations directed ___

other nations' interests, its own population, or private groups viewed ___ dangerous ___ the state.

3.State sponsorship of terrorism is known ___ "state supported" terrorism, when governments provide supplies, training, and other forms ___ support ___ non-state terrorist organizations.

Exercise 7. Fill in the chart. Add some more examples to the chart.

the East German Stasi

USSR (Stalin's "purges")

Libyan and North Korean intelligence operations

Germany (Nazi policy)

OVER TO YOU

Terrorists do not see themselves as evil. They believe they are legitimate combatants, fighting for what they believe in, by whatever means possible. A victim of a terrorist act sees the terrorist as a criminal with no regard for human life. The general public’s view is the most unstable. The terrorists do their best trying to foster a “Robin Hood” image in hope of swaying the general public’s point of view toward their cause. This sympathetic view of terrorism has become an integral part of their psychological warfare and needs to be countered vigorously.

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Analyse the phrase “one man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter”. What do you think of it? can you agree with it? Are there any situations where it can be considered just?

Exercise 8. Analyze the following categories of terrorism and terrorist groups. What specific criteria lie in the basis of this classification?

Separatist Separatist groups are those with the goal of separation from existing entities through independence, political autonomy, or religious freedom or domination. The ideologies separatists subscribe to include social justice or equity, anti-imperialism, as well as the resistance to conquest or occupation by a foreign power.

Ethnocentric Groups of this persuasion see race as the defining characteristic of a society, and therefore a basis of cohesion. There is usually the attitude that a particular group is superior because of their inherent racial characteristics.

Nationalistic The loyalty and devotion to a nation, and the national consciousness derived from placing one nation's culture and interests above those of other nations or groups. This can find expression in the creation of a new nation, or in splitting away part of an existing state to join with another that shares the perceived "national" identity.

Revolutionary. Dedicated to the overthrow of an established order and replacing it with a new political or social structure. Although often associated with communist political ideologies, this is not always the case, and other political movements can advocate revolutionary methods to achieve their goals.

Political Political ideologies are concerned with the structure and organization of the forms of government and communities. While observers outside terrorist organizations may stress differences in political ideology, the activities of groups that are diametrically opposed on the political spectrum are similar to each other in practice.