4.2. Memorial constructions of Ancient and Modern Times

A memorial (pic. 32, 33) is an object which serves as a focus for memory of something, usually a person (who has died) or an event. Popular forms of memorials include landmark objects or art object such as sculpture, statues or fountains, and even entire parks. The most common type of memorial is the gravestone or the memorial plaque.

Also common are war memorials commemorating those who have died in wars. Memorials in the form of a cross are called intending crosses. Online memorials and tributes are becoming increasingly popular especially with the increase in natural burial where the laying of gravestones, or memorial plaques, is often not permitted. When somebody has died, the family may request that a memorial gift (usually money) be given to a designated

(from Greek «sleeping place») implies that the landИis specifically designated as a burial ground. The older termАgraveyard is often used interchangeably

charity, or that a tree be planted in memory of the person.

A cemetery (рic. 34) or graveyard is a spatially defined area where the

with cemetery, but primarily referred to aДburial ground within a churchyard. The intact or cremated remainsбof people may be interred in a grave, commonly referred to as burial, or in a tomb an "above-ground grave" (resembling a sarcophagus,иmausoleum, columbarium, or other edifice.

remains of dead people are buried or otherwise interred. The word cemetery

In Western cultures, funeral ceremonies are often observed in cemeteries. These ceremoniesСor rites of passages differ according to cultural practices and religious beliefs. Modern cemeteries often include crematoria, and some grounds previously used for both, continue as crematoria as a principal use long after the interment areas have been filled.

A necropolis (pic. 35) is a large ancient cemetery with elaborate tomb monuments. The word is derived from the Ancient Greek necropolis, literally meaning "city of the dead". The term implies a separate burial site at a distance from a city as opposed to tombs within cities, which were common in various places and periods of history. They are different from grave fields, which did not have remains above the ground. While the word is most commonly used for ancient sites, it has also been used for some modern cemeteries such as the Glasgow Necropolis, the Motherland Calls a statue in Mamayev Kurgan in Volgograd (pic. 36) [10].

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Pic. 33. National September 11 Memorial & Museum commemorating the September 11 attacks

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Pic. 35. Monuments on the summit of the Glasgow Necropolis hill

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Задание 1. Определите значения словоформ в минимальном кон-

тексте: landmark objects, gravestone, intending crosses, plaque, designated charity, religious beliefs

Задание 2. Переведите слова и словосочетания, учитывая контекст их употребления:

Memorial

Necropolis

Landmark objects

Cemetery

disputable), because…

The idea of... appears (seems) to have practical interest. In conclusion I can say…

The concluding part of my report contains notes on...

We can make a conclusion that… My conclusions (results) based on…..

Задание 6. Опишите, какие объекты архитектуры вы видите на pис. 32–36. Используйте следующие модели:

The first picture illustrates …

We can see a…in the second picture.

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The buildings, we can see on the …picture, are...

The characteristic features of the object are…

The figure illustrates the…

используйте модели из предыдущего упражнения.

Memorial constructions are also mausoleums, obelisks, steles, monuments. A mausoleum is an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the interment space or burial chamber of a deceased person or people. A monument without the interment is a cenotaph. A mausoleum may be considered a type of tomb or the tomb may be considered to be within the mausoleum. A Christian mausoleum sometimes includes a chapel. The word is derived from the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (near modern-day Bodrum in Turkey), the grave of King Mausolus, the Persian satrap of Caria, whose large tomb was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

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Historically, mausoleums were, and still now may be, large and impressive constructions for a deceased leader or other person of importance. However, smaller mausoleums soon became popular with the gentry and nobility in many countries. In the Roman Empire, these were often ranged in necropolis or along roadsides: the via Appia Antica retains the ruins of many private mausoleums for miles outside Rome. However, when Christianity became dominant, mausoleums were out of use. Later, mausoleums became particularly popular in Europe and its colonies during the early modern and modern periods. A single mausoleum may be permanently sealed. A mausoleum encloses a burial chamber either wholly above ground or within a burial vault below the superstructure. Mausoleum may be located in a cemetery, a churchyard or on private land.

An obelisk (pic. 37) is a tall, four-sided, narrow tapering monument which ends in a pyramid-like shape at the top. Like Egyptian pyramids, whose shape is thought to be representative of the descending rays of the sun, an obelisk is said to resemble a petrified ray of the sun-disk. A pair of obelisks usually stood in front of a pylon. Ancient obelisks were often

who placed them in pairs at бthe entranceАof temples. The word "obelisk" as used in English todayиis of Greek rather than Egyptian origin because Herodotus, the Greek traveler, was one of the first classical writers to describe the objects.СA number of ancient Egyptian obelisks are known to have survived, plus the "Unfinished Obelisk» found partly hewn from its quarry at Aswan. These obelisks are now dispersed around the world, and fewer than half of them remain in Egypt. The earliest temple obelisk still in its original position is the 68-foot (20.7 m) 120-ton red granite Obelisk of Senusret of the XII Dynasty at AL-Matatitiyyah part of Heliopolis (pic.35). The obelisk symbolized the sun god Ra, and during the brief religious reformation of Akhenaton was said to be a petrified ray of the Aten, the sun dick. It was also thought that the god existed within the structure.

The Ancient Romans were strongly influenced by the obelisk form, to the extent that there are now more than twice as many obelisks standing in Rome as remain in Egypt. All fell after the Roman period except for the Vatican obelisk and were re-erected in different locations. The tallest Egyptian obelisk is in the square in front of the Lateran Basilica in Rome at 105.6 feet (32.2 m) tall and a weight of 455 tons. Rome is the obelisk capital of the world. The most well-known is probably the 25 meter (82 ft), 331-ton

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obelisk at Saint Peter’s Square in Rome. The obelisk had stood since AD 37 on its site on the wall of the Circus of Nero, flanking St Peter's Basilica.

A stele or stela (pic. 38, 39) is a stone or wooden slab, generally taller than it is wide, erected as a monument, very often for funerary or commemorative purposes. Stele may be used for government notices or as territorial markers to mark borders or delineate land ownership. They very often have texts and may have decoration, which may be inscribed, carved in relief or painted onto the slab. Traditional Western gravestones are technically stele, but are very rarely described by the term.

The term stele is generally used for other monumental standing inscribed sculpted stones. Steles have also been used to publish laws and decrees, to record a ruler's exploits and honors, to mark sacred territories or mortgaged properties, as territorial markers, as the boundary steles of Akhenaton at

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Pic. 40. The Memorial to the murdered Jews in Berlin

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Steles have also been used to publish laws and decrees, to record a ruler's exploits and honors, to mark sacred territories or mortgaged properties, as territorial markers, as the boundary steles of Akhenaton at Amarna or to commemorate military victories. They were widely used in the Ancient Near East, Mesopotamia, Greece, Egypt, Somalia, Eritrea, Ethiopia and, most likely independently, in China and elsewhere in the Far East, and, more surely independently, by Mesoamerican civilizations.

A monument (pic. 41) is a type of a structure that was explicitly created to commemorate a person or important event, or which has become important to a social group as a part of their remembrance of historic times or cultural heritage, or as an example of historic architecture. The term 'monument' is often applied to buildings or structures that are considered examples of important architectural and/or cultural heritage.

Monuments have been created for thousands of years, and they are often the most durable and famous symbols of ancient civilizations. Prehistoric tumuli, dolmens, and similar structures have been created in a large number of prehistoric cultures across the world, and the many forms of monumental

become symbols of their civilizations. In more recent times, monumental structures such asСthe Statue of Liberty and Eiffel Tower have become iconic emblems of modern nation-states.

Monuments are frequently used to improve the appearance of a city or location. Planned cities such as Washington D.C., New Delhi and Brasília are often built around monuments. For example, the Washington Monument's (pic. 44) location was conceived by L'Enfant to help organize public space in the city, before it was designed or constructed.

Monuments are also often designed to convey historical or political information. They can be used to reinforce the primacy of contemporary political power, such as the column of Trajan or the numerous statues of Lenin in the Soviet Union. They can be used to educate the populace about important events or figures from the past.

Buildings designed as landmarks, usually built with extraordinary feature such as tallest, largest or distinctive design – such as the Burj Khalifa (pic. 45), the world's tallest structure as the landmark of Dubai. Grave stones

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constitute small monuments to the deceased – such as the tombs and vaults of veterans in Les Invalids’ and Srebrenica Genocide Memorial (pic. 46).

Pic. 42. Mausoleums and tombs to honor the dead – such as the Great Pyramid of Giza

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Pic. 44. Washington’s Monument

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Pic. 45. Burj Khalifa in Dubai (Tallest in the world since 2010)

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A mausoleum may be considered …

Steles have also been used to …

Obelisks were prominent in the architecture …

A Christian mausoleum sometimes …

As societies became organized on a larger scale …

Monuments are frequently used to improve …

Confusingly, some English-speaking archaeologists …

Buildings designed as landmarks …

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Задание 4. Определите, какие модели аннотирования применимы к следующей информации:

Monuments have been created for thousands of years, and they are often the most durable and famous symbols of ancient civilizations.

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In examining the problem the author points out that…

It’s necessary to note that…

The author emphasizes the fact that…

Задание 5. Опишите, какие объекты архитектуры вы видите на рис. 32, 34 – 36, 47 – 49). Используйте следующие модели:

The first picture illustrates …

We can see a…in the second picture.

The buildings, we can see on the …picture, are...

The characteristic features of the object are… The figure illustrates the…

Задание 6. Найдите избыточную информацию в текстах и

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Pic. 47. Statue of Lenin, Seattle, the USA

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