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excavators. Modern trucks are powered by either gasoline or diesel engines, with the latter dominant in commercial applications.

A van is a kind of vehicle used for transporting goods or groups of people. It is usually a box-shaped vehicle on four wheels, about the same width and length as a large automobile, but taller and usually higher off the ground, also referred to as a light commercial vehicle. However, in North America, the term may be used to refer to any truck with a rigid cargo body fixed to the cab, even up to large sizes. In the UK usage, it can be either specially designed or based on a saloon/sedan car, the latter type often including derivatives with open backs (such as pick-up trucks). There are vans in all shapes and sizes, ranging from the classic van version of the tiny Mini to the five meter long variants of the Mercedes Sprinter van. Vehicles larger than this are classified as lorries (trucks).

A bus (archaically also omnibus, multibus, or autobus) is a road vehicle designed to carry passengers. A bus seats a maximum of 8 to 300 passengers. Buses are widely used public transportation. The most common type of bus is the single-decker bus, with larger loads carried by double-decker buses and articulated buses, and smaller loads carried by midibuses and minibuses. A luxury, long distance bus is called a coach. A bus is powered by a combustion engine, although early buses were horse drawn and there were experiments with steam propulsion. Trolleybuses use overhead power lines. The trolleybus can be seen as a branch of, and a parallel development to, the conventional bus. In parallel with the car industry bus manufacturing is increasingly globalised, with the same design appearing around the world.

A bicycle, also known as a bike, push bike or cycle, is a pedal-driven, human-powered vehicle with two wheels attached to a frame, one behind the other. Bicycles were introduced in the 19th century and now number about one billion worldwide, nearly twice as many as automobiles. They are the principal means of transportation in many regions. They also provide a popular form of recreation, and have been adapted for such uses as children’s toys, adult fitness, military and police applications, courier services, and competitive sports.

A train is a connected series of vehicles for rail transport that move along a track (permanent way) to transport cargo or passengers from one place to another. The track usually consists of two rails, but might also be a monorail or maglev guideway. Passenger rail transport is the conveyance of passengers by means of wheeled vehicles specially designed to run along railways. Trains allow high capacity on short or long distance, but require track infrastructure and stations to be built. Propulsion for the train is provided by a separate locomotive, or from individual engines in self-propelled multiple units. Urban rail transit consists of trams, light rail, rapid transit, people movers, commuter rail and funiculars.

A tram, tramcar (GB), trolleycar, or streetcar (US) is a railborne vehicle, of lighter weight and construction than a conventional train, designed for the transport of passengers (and, very occasionally, cargo) within, close to, or between villages, towns and/or cities, on tracks running primarily on streets. Certain types of cable car are also known as trams. They have higher capacity than buses, but must follow dedicated infrastructure with rails and wires either above or below the track, limiting their flexibility. Tramways with tramcars (or street railways with streetcars) were common throughout the industrialised world in the late 19th and early 20th centuries but they had disappeared from most British, Canadian, French and U.S. cities by the mid-20th century. Light rail is a modern development of the tram, with dedicated right-of-way not shared with other traffic, step-free access and increased speed.

A rapid transit, metro(politan), subway, underground, or elevated railway system is an electric passenger railway in an urban area with high capacity and frequency, and grade separation from other traffic. Rapid transit systems are typically either in tunnels or elevated above street level. Outside urban centers rapid transit lines sometimes run grade separated at ground level. Service on rapid transit systems is provided on designated lines between stations using electric multiple units on rails, although some systems use magnetic levitation or monorails. Rapid transit is faster and has a higher capacity than trams or light rail, but is not as fast or as far-reaching as commuter rail. It is unchallenged in its ability to transport large amounts of people quickly over short distances with little land use. Variations of rapid transit include people movers, small-scale light metro and the commuter rail hybrid S-Bahn.

Commuter rail is part of an urban area’s public transport; it provides faster services to outer suburbs and neighboring towns and villages. Trains stop at all stations, that are located to serve a smaller suburban or town center. Compared to rapid transit, commuter rail has lower frequency, following a schedule rather than fixed intervals, and fewer stations spaced further apart. They serve lower density areas, and often share right-of-way with intercity or cargo trains.

A funicular, also known as a funicular railway, incline, inclined railway, inclined plane, or cliff railway, is a cable railway in which a cable attached to a pair of tram-like vehicles on rails moves them up and down a steep slope. A conventional train could never travel up such a steep incline because the steel train wheels do not have enough traction against steel rails. To climb mountains trains have to go up tracks that spiral around the mountain or go through many switchbacks. The funicular conquers these problems in a very elegant way. At any one time one car is balancing the weight of the other. The descending car’s weight helps pull the ascending car up the mountain, and the ascending train keeps the speed of the descending train from going out of control. There is still an engine powering the pulley but it only has to provide

enough force to overcome the difference in weight between the two cars (the weight of the passengers) and to overcome the friction in the system.

TRANSPORT

ROAD

4.Say what the basis of classification in this scheme was. Think of other ways of classification.

5.Explain the difference between the following vehicles:

1)a car and a van;

2)a van and a bus;

3)a trolleybus and a tram;

4)rapid transit and commuter rail;

5)commuter rail and an intercity train.

6.Find synonyms to the following words in the text:

freight, quickly, motor, petrol, highway, small, usual.

7.Guess what words originally meant:

-a self-propelled vehicle;

-a vehicle for all;

-a two-wheeled vehicle;

-a vehicle that pulls others.

8.Correlate the types of buses mentioned in the text with the following pictures:

9. Look through the table representing the parallel development of different vehicles and say what kind of vehicles brought inventions into use earlier. Give your reasons for it if possible.

HISTORY

Although Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is often credited with building the first self-propelled mechanical vehicle in about 1769, by adapting an existing horsedrawn vehicle, this claim is disputed by some historians, who doubt Cugnot’s three-wheeler ever ran or was stable. What is not in doubt is that Richard Trevithick built and demonstrated his “Puffing Devil” road locomotive in 1801, believed by many to be the first demonstration of a steam-powered road vehicle, although it was unable to maintain sufficient steam pressure for long periods, and would have been of little practical use.

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1)To move transport.

2)A person carried by public transport.

3)One of parallel metal bars forming a track.

4)The act or process of burning.

5)A connected series of vehicles that move along a track.

6)Something carried or to be carried at one time or in one trip.

7)A floor of a bus or a tram.

8)A machine that uses energy to develop mechanical power (for example, for moving transport).

9)Fuel for a significant part of road transport.

10)A road vehicle for transporting cargo.

11)… rail is a suburban rail transport.

13. Divide the following text into passages:

The basic shape and configuration of a typical bicycle has changed little since the first chain-driven model was developed around 1885. Many details have been improved, especially since the advent of modern materials and computer-aided design. These have allowed for a proliferation of specialized designs for particular types of cycling. The invention of the bicycle has had an enormous impact on society, both in terms of culture and of advancing modern industrial methods. Several components that eventually played a key role in the development of the automobile were originally invented for the bicycle – e.g., ball bearings, pneumatic tires, chain-driven sprockets, spoke-tensioned wheels, etc. Bicycles have been and are employed for many uses: utility( bicycle commuting and utility cycling), work (mail delivery, paramedics, police, etc), recreation (bicycle touring, mountain biking and physical fitness), racing (track racing, criterium, roller racing and time trial to multi-stage events), military (scouting, troop movement, supply of provisions, and patrol), show (entertainment and performance, e.g. circus clowns).

Give titles to the distinguished passages.

14. Look through the text again and find information about the dependence between the development of bicycles and automobiles.

15. Enumerate several advantages and disadvantages of trams. Compare your list with the following one:

ADVANTAGES

Unlike buses, but like trolleybuses, (electric) trams give off no exhaust emissions at point of use. Compared to motorbuses the noise of trams is generally perceived to be less disturbing. However, the use of solid axles with wheels fixed to them causes slippage between wheels and tracks when negotiating curves. This produces a characteristic loud, high frequency noise often referred to as a "squeal."

Trams can adapt to the number of passengers by adding more vehicles during rush hour (and removing them during off-peak hours). No additional driver is then required for the trip in comparison to buses.

In general, trams provide a higher capacity service than buses.

Rights-of-way for trams are narrower than for buses. This saves valuable space in cities with high population densities and/or narrow streets.

Trams can trackshare with mainline railways, servicing smaller towns without requiring special track.

Because the tracks are visible, it is easy for potential riders to know where the routes are.

Passenger comfort is normally superior to buses because of controlled acceleration and braking and curve easement. Rail transport such as used by trams provides a smoother ride than road use by buses.

Vehicles run more efficiently and overall operating costs are lower.

Consistent market research and experience over the last 50 years in Europe and North America shows that car commuters are willing to transfer some trips to rail-based public transport but not to buses. Typically light rail systems attract between 30 and 40% of their patronage from former car trips. Rapid transit bus systems attract less than 5% of trips from cars, less than the variability of traffic.

DISADVANTAGES

Tram infrastructure occupies urban space above ground to the exclusion of other users, including cars.

The capital cost is higher than for buses.

Trams can cause speed reduction for other transport modes (buses, cars) when stops in the middle of the road do not have pedestrian refuges, as in such configurations other traffic cannot pass whilst passengers alight/board the tram.

When operated in mixed traffic, trams are more likely to be delayed by disruptions in their lane. Buses, by contrast, can sometimes maneuver around obstacles. Opinions differ on whether the deference that drivers show to trams – a cultural issue that varies by country – is sufficient to counteract this disadvantage.

Tram tracks can be dangerous for cyclists, as bikes, particularly those with narrow tyres, may get their wheels caught in the track grooves. It is possible to close the grooves of the tracks on critical sections by rubber profiles that are pressed down by the wheelflanges of the passing tram but that cannot be lowered by the weight of a cyclist. If not well-maintained, however, these lose their effectiveness over time. Crossing tracks without trouble requires a sufficient angle of crossing, reducing a cyclist’s ability to avoid road hazards where tracks run along the road, especially in wet weather. This and problems with parked cars are reduced by building tracks and platforms in the middle of the road, or by giving cyclists a dedicated path, so they avoid cycling in the lane with tracks.

Steel wheel trams are noisier than rubber-wheeled trolleybuses when cornering if there are no additional measures taken (e.g. greasing wheel flanges, which is standard in new-built systems). Tram wheels are fixed onto axles so they have to rotate together, but going around curves, one wheel or the other has to slip, and that causes loud unpleasant squeals.

Tram drivers can control the switches (points) ahead of them. In modern tram systems this problem has been resolved by use of switches that inhibit relocation when a tram is detected passing and/or more sophisticated means of command transmission.

The opening of new tram and light rail systems has sometimes been accompanied by a marked increase in car accidents, as a result of drivers’ unfamiliarity with the physics and geometry of trolleys. Though such increases may be temporary, long-term conflicts between motorists and light rail operations can be alleviated by segregating their respective rights-of-way and installing appropriate signage and warning systems.

Rail transport can expose neighbouring populations to moderate levels of low-frequency noise. However, transportation planners use noise mitigation strategies to minimize these effects. Most of all, the potential for decreased private motor vehicle operations along the trolley’s service line because of the service provision could result in lower ambient noise levels than without.

In the event of a breakdown or accident, or even roadworks and maintenance, a whole section of the tram network can be blocked. Buses and trolleybuses can often get past minor blockages, although trolleybuses are restricted by how far they can go from the wires. Conventional buses can divert around major blockages as well, as can most modern trolleybuses that are fitted with auxiliary engines or traction batteries. The tram blockage problem can be mitigated by providing regular crossovers so a tram can run on the opposite line to pass a blockage, although this can be more difficult when running on road sections shared with other road users. On extensive networks diversionary routes may be available depending on the location of the blockage. Breakdown related problems can be reduced by minimising the situations where a tram would be

stuck on route, as well as making it as simple as possible for another tram to rescue a failed one.

16.Make a list of advantages and disadvantages of buses. Suggest ways of resolving the problems if possible.

17.Carry out a survey to find out what kinds of transport the students of your group and their relatives prefer and what their choice depends on. Analyse the collected data and draw a conclusion what groups of people according to the kind of vehicles chosen by them can be distinguished. Present the results of your survey using PowerPoint. (Project work)

18.Look through the text and find out what modifications in buses can be made according to different purposes of their users.

USE OF BUSES

Public transport forms the major use of buses and coaches. The use and design of public transport buses varies around the world, and utilises the entire range of bus designs and capacities. The design of buses and coaches is often specialised to a particular type of service. Public buses can be organised in large fleets or as small concerns, and be publicly or privately owned and operated.

The transit bus is the predominant design of public bus, which has specific features to allow use as a public transport vehicle. Transit buses have utilitarian fittings designed for efficient movement of large numbers of people, and often have multiple doors. A dual purpose bus is a transit bus fitted with coach style higher backed more comfortable seats, used on longer distance routes where standing passengers are not likely to be present. Specially adapted mobility buses may be used on specialist services for the transport of passengers with mobility issues.

High capacity bus rapid transit (BRT) services may use the bi-articulated bus, an extension of the articulated bus concept with two trailer sections. Guided buses are fitted with technology to allow them to run in designated guideways, allowing the controlled alignment at bus stops and less space taken up by guided lanes than conventional roads or bus lanes. Guidance can be mechanical, optical or electromagnetic. Guidance is often, but not exclusively, employed as a part of a BRT scheme. Extensions of the guided technology include the Guided Light Transit and Translohr systems, although these are more often termed “rubber tyred trams” as they have limited or no mobility away from their guideways.

In some countries, particularly the U.S., buses used to transport school children have evolved in to a specific design with specified mandatory features. These buses feature things such as the school bus yellow livery and crossing guards. Other countries may mandate the use of seat belts. As a minimum many countries require that a school bus displays a sign, and may also adopt yellow liveries. School buses may be operated by local authorities or private contractors. Schools may also own and operate their own buses for other