ПОТРЕБНОСТИ

1. Составьте словосочетания существительное + прилагательное и существительное + глагол с лексемой need. Используйте следующие сведения и фразы:

Need as sth that sb requires

basic, essential, fundamental \particular, special, specific \ immediate, pressing \

3. На основе полученных сведений о понятииИneed постройте опорную

логическую схему «Виды потребностей и их сущность».

4. Переведите представленный ниже текст, на основе его содержания постройте опорную схему, по которой легко будет пересказать текст.

A need is something that is necessary for an organism to live a healthy life. Needs are distinguished from wants in that, in the case of a need, a deficiency causes a clear adverse outcome: a dysfunction or death. In other words, a need is something required for a safe, stable and healthy life (e.g. food, water, shelter) while a want is a desire, wish or aspiration. When needs or wants are backed by purchasing power, they have the potential to become economic demands.

Basic needs such as water, air, food and protection from environmental dangers are necessary for an organism to live. In addition to basic needs, humans also have needs of a social nature such as the human need to socialise of belong to a family unit

26

or group. Needs can be objective and physical, such as the need for food, or psychological and subjective, such as the need for self-esteem.

Needs and wants are a matter of interest in, and form a common substrate for, the fields of philosophy, biology, psychology, social science, economics, marketing and politics.

To most psychologists, need is a psychological feature that arouses an organism

to action toward a goal, giving purpose and direction to behavior. Си б А

Maslow's ДHierarchy of Needs

The most widely known academic model of needs was proposed by psychologist, Abraham Maslow, in 1943. His theoryИproposed that people have a hierarchy of psychological needs, which range from basic physiological or lower order needs such as food, water and safety (e.g. shelter) through to the higher order needs such as self-actualization. People tend to spend most of their resources (time, energy and finances) attempting to satisfy these basic before the higher order needs of belonging, esteem and self-actualization become meaningful. Maslow's approach is a generalised model for understanding human motivations in a wide variety of contexts, but must be adapted for specific contexts. While intuitively appealing, Maslow's model has been difficult to operationalize experimentally. It was developed further by Clayton Alderfer.

Doyal and Gough point to twelve broad categories of "intermediate needs" that define how the needs for physical health and personal autonomy are fulfilled:

1.Adequate nutritious food and water

2.Adequate protective housing

27

10. Economic security

11. Safe birth control and child-bearing

12. Appropriate basic and cross-cultural education

How are the details of needs satisfaction determined? The authors point to rational identification of needs, using up-to-date scientific knowledge: consideration of the actual experiences of individuals in their everyday lives; and democratic decision-making. The satisfaction of human needs cannot be imposed "from above".

1. Изучите сочетаемостные возможности лексемы knowledge, выпишите полезные для описания личности словосочетания:

2. Переведите предложения на русский язык. Выпишите то, что поможет вам построить описание знакомого или воображаемого человека с точки зрения его знаний:

She has an intimate knowledge of the Asian market.

He managed to find contacts who had inside knowledge of the organization. I have a limited knowledge of French.

28

I don't like quizzes because my general knowledge is so poor. He has a good working knowledge of the subject.

It's common knowledge that he's left his wife.

She had acted with her parents' full knowledge and consent.

The job gave her the chance to apply the knowledge she had acquired at

виды знаний должны иметь представители разных профессий. Постройте

предложения по схеме: A builder should \ must know… (What? How to do smith…) to do his work…(safety….\ well)Д.

5. Переведите представленный ниже текст, на основе его содержания

постройте опорную схему, по которой легко будет пересказать текст.

Knowledge is a familiarity, awareness, or understanding of someone or

something, such as facts, information, descriptions, or skills, which is acquired through experience or education by perceiving, discovering, or learning.

Knowledge can refer to a theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. It can be implicit (as with practical skill or expertise) or explicit (as with the theoretical

29

belief (JTB) account of knowledge. The JTB account holds that knowledge is equivalent to justified true belief; if all three conditions (justification, truth, and belief) are met of a given claim, then we have knowledge of that claim. In his 1963 three-page paper titled "Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?", Gettier’s attempts to illustrate by means of two counterexamples that there are cases where individuals can have a justified, true belief regarding a claim but still fail to know it because the reasons for the belief, while justified, turn out to be false. Thus, Gettier claims to

Сhave shown that the JTB account is inadequate; that it does not account for all of the necessary and sufficient conditions for knowledge.

The term "Gettier problem", "Gettier case", or even the adjective "Gettiered", is sometimes used to describe any case in the field of epistemology that purports to

и capacity of acknowledgementбin human beings.

repudiate the JTB account of knowledge.

However, several definitions of knowledge and theories to explain it exist. Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes: perception,

communication, and reasoning; while knowledge is also said to be related to the

Communicating knowledge. Symbolic representations can be used to indicate meaning and can be thought of as a dynamic process. Hence the transfer of the symbolic representation can be viewed as one ascription process whereby knowledge

can be transferred. Other forms of communication include observation and imitation,

advantage of a partial understanding of the problem context and problem data, unlike the typical math problems one might solve at school, where all data is given and one is given a complete understanding of formulas necessary to solve them.

This idea is also present in the concept of bounded rationality which assumes that in real life situations people often have a limited amount of information and make decisions accordingly.

30

includes a broader usage in the soft sciences such as biology and the social sciences – discussed elsewhere as meta-epistemology, or genetic epistemology, and to some extent related to theory of cognitive development. Note that "epistemology" is the study of knowledge and how it is acquired. Science is the process used every day to logically complete thoughts through inference of facts determined by calculated

maintaining skepticism means that a scientist will never be absolutely certain when

10. Unconscious cognitive processes

11. Mental experience

12. Identity theorists

13. Foster the development

14. Valuable commodity

15. Experience points

31