Cartilages

Definition: a stiff and inflexible connective tissue found in many areas in the bodies of humans, including the joints between bones, the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the elbow, the knee, the ankle, the bronchial tubes and the intervertebral discs.

Structure: specialized cells called chondrocytes.

Common diseases: chondrodystrophies, osteoarthritis, traumatic rupture, costochondritis, spinal disc herniation, benign and malignant tumors, polychondritis, etc.

Tendons

Definition: a tough band of fibrous connective tissue.

Function: to connect muscles to bones.

Common diseases: different kinds of tendonopathies.

Ligaments

Definitions: articular ligaments: fibrous tissue that connects bones to other bones. Peritoneal ligaments: a fold of peritoneum or other membranes.

Types of ligaments: knee ligaments, head and neck ligaments, pelvic ligaments, and thoracic ligaments.

Rheumatoid arthritis

Phonetic exercise: rheumatoid [’ru:mtId], arthritis [’θraitis], chronic [‘krnik], inflammatory [in’flæmətəri], disorder [dis’:də], autoimmunity [,təui’mju:niti], autoimmune [,təui’mju:n], pleura ['pljuərə], sclera [‘skliərə], characterized [‘kærəktəraizd], evaluation [i,vælju’ei∫n]], epidemiology [‘epi,di:mi’ləd3i]

Make a report on rheumatoid arthritis according to the plan below:

Definition: a chronic, systemic inflammatory disorder that may affect many tissues and organs, but principally attacks synovial joints; a form of autoimmunity.

Symptoms, signs, clinical manifestations, clinical features: joint pains, morning stiffness, radiological changes, joint inflammation, joint swellings, diffuse inflammation in the lungs, pericardium, pleura, and sclera, etc.

Epidemiology: about 1% of the world's population; 3 cases per 10,000 population; Onset: most frequent between the ages of 40 and 50.

Risk groups: women three times more often than men; 4 times more common in smokers than non-smokers.

Causes: still incompletely known.

Evaluation: history: a personal medical history, a family history, a medication history, an occupational history, a professional history, an inveronmental history, a surgical history, a social history, etc.

Physical examination: observation and palpation.

Instrumental evaluation: blood tests (especially a test called rheumatoid factor) and X-rays.

Diagnostic criteria:

• Morning stiffness of >(more than) 1 hour, most mornings for at least 6 weeks.

• Arthritis and soft-tissue swelling of > (more than) 3 of 14 joints/joint groups, present for at least 6 weeks

• Arthritis of hand joints, present for at least 6 weeks

• Symmetric arthritis, present for at least 6 weeks

• Subcutaneous nodules in specific places

• Rheumatoid factor at a level above the 95th percentile

• Radiological changes suggestive of joint erosion

Treatment: non-pharmacological treatment: physical therapy, occupational therapy and nutritional therapy, special tools to improve hard movements (e.g. special tin-openers, pens, pencils); pharmaceutical treatment: painkillers), anti-inflammatory drugs, (steroids), disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), joint injections, etc.