andreeva_tia_nauchnyi_angliiskii_iazyk_vypusk_12_annotirovan

temational markets. In section 5, we track the efficiency and profitability of Russian stock returns. Section 6 concludes.

T e x t 4

Behavior in Organizations: Understanding and Managing the Human Side of Work

by Robert A. Baron

Books, like people, should have clear-cut goals. If they do not, they stand a very good chance of losing their way - of wandering off in several contradictory directions at once. Be­ fore I began work on Behavior in Organizations, therefore, I thought long and hard about what kind of book it should be. Who was its intended audience? What materials should it contain? How should it differ from (and perhaps improve upon) existing texts in the area? These are just a small sample of the questions I considered. After giving these and other issues careful thought, I decided that I should work toward the attainment of four distinct goals. I will now comment briefly on each.

Goal 1: Broad and Up-to-Date Coverage. The first and per­ haps most important goal I sought was that of preparing a text offering broad and current treatment of Organizational Behav­ ior. In order to attain the first of these features, I developed a questionnaire concerning topics for possible inclusion in the text. This was sent to over 1,000 colleagues currently teaching the course, and more than 400 kindly responded. The suggestions and feedback they provided were invaluable to me in writing a text that reflects the breadth and diversity of modem O.B.

With respect to currency of content, I made every effort to include recent findings and theories, as well as more "classic" materials. In this regard, I might note that more than 150 of the 800 citations present in the text are from

51

1980, 1981, and 1982. Thus, the book is as up-to-date and indicative of recent trends as possible.

Goal 2: Inclusion of Recent Advances in Related Fields. O.B. has always been an integrative field - one that benefits greatly from findings and advances in related disciplines. Con­ sistent with this basic fact, I have attempted to include in­ formation on recent advances in such fields as social psychol­ ogy, sociology, and management theory. And here, I might add, I discovered a number of interesting topics that had not as yet been incorporated into existing O.B. texts. Among these were the nature of escalating (and entrapping) conflicts, im­ portant new findings on social perception and attribution, "so­ cial loafing" (the tendency to expend less effort when working as part of a group than when working alone), and grouppolarization effects in group decision making. These and many other topics are included in Behavior in Organizations, and I believe that they will be of interest to students and colleagues alike.

Goal 3: Comprehensibility and Appeal to Students. If my fifteen years of university teaching have taught me anything, it is this: when undergraduate students find a text undecipherable or dull, they will not read it. And even if they do, the information it contains will soon vanish without a trace. With this lesson in mind, I have taken several concrete steps to enhance the interestvalue and appeal ofthe text. Briefly, these are as follows:

(1)Informal Writing Style. The text is written in a fairly in­ formal style - one in which I often address readers directly. I have found that many students react positively to this approach, and I have adopted it here for this reason.

(2)Inclusion of Special Inserts. I have included three dis­ tinct types of special inserts (boxes) in the text. All are de­ signed to enhance student involvement, as well as to present

52

important materials. The first of these is labeled "From the Manager's Perspective" and seeks to clarify the implications of findings and principles covered for actual management set­ tings. The second is titled "Focus on Behavior. " Boxes of this type describe recent research findings or current method­ ological issues and refinements. The third type of insert is la­ beled "Case in Point" and offers cases specially chosen or cre­ ated to illustrate important points made in the text. Together, these three types of inserts should enhance student interest in and involvement with the text.

(3)Illustrations. Having interacted with hundreds of un­ dergraduates in recent years, it is my impression that they are highly "visual" people, who both enjoy and profit from graph­ ics. For this reason, the text contains a larger number (and a greater variety) of illustrations than is true in many other O.B. texts. These include graphs depicting research findings, tables, word diagrams, photos, and cartoons. All the graphs contain special labels designed to call attention to the major points being shown. Word diagrams illustrate important pro­ cesses and theories and are simple and straightforward. (Like all graphs, they have been specially created for this text). Fi­ nally, photos and cartoons have been carefully selected so that they relate very closely to text material and illustrate important, basic points.

(4)In-Text Aids. The text also includes a number of spe­ cific aids designed to enhance its usefulness to students. Each chapter is preceded by an outline of the major topics covered and begins with a short vignette designed to capture reader at­ tention and to set the stage for the materials that follow. (These vignettes can also be viewed as brief cases). Each chapter ends

53

with a detailed summary and a glossary in which all key terms are defined in clear and simple language.

Goal 4: Provide Assistance for Colleagues Teaching the Course. My own experience in teaching large undergraduate courses suggests just how time-consuming and challenging they can be. For this reason, I have attempted to provide as much assistance as possible to colleagues faced with the task of handling undergraduate O.B. Along these lines, the text is ac­ companied by two ancillary items (both handled primarily by Jerri Frantzve): a comprehensive Instructor's Manual, and a Case/Experiential Exercise Handbook.

The Instructor's Manual provides the standard array of multi­ ple choice, short-answer, and essay questions. In addition, it con­ tains a number of innovative features. These include: (a) informa­ tion helpful in preparing lectures (topics and sources not covered in the text); (b) a listing ofnew references published in 1982;

(c)lists of films and other audiovisual aids (as well as where to obtain them); and

(d)transparency masters, which can be used in producing illustrations for presentation in class. Finally, several cases and exercises are also provided.

Behaving in Organizations: Tales from the Trenches. This ancillary text contains a wide assortment of cases and experi­ ential exercises and offers several innovative features. Perhaps the most important of these is the fact that all cases presented were submitted by individuals who are now working in organi­ zations or who have worked in them in the past. Hence the subtitle of the book. Other major features include (a) special guidelines on how to use and learn from case material and (b) sources students can consult for additional information on each topic covered. In addition, a special "grid" illustrates how each

54

case and exercise can be related to several different topic areas considered in the text.

T e x t 5

Interpersonal Skills for Leadership

Fritz S., Brown F. W., Lunde J. P., Banset E. A. / Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.

Although we may assume that the words we speak carry significant weight when we communicate with someone else, the fact is the true nature of our communication with other people has little to do with words. We depend instead on a language without words referred to collectively as nonverbal communication.

Various experts in communication estimate that between 75 percent and 90 percent of the information we gather from others is nonverbal in nature. In some cases nonverbal communication is used to either affirm or contradict a verbal message. At other times the nonverbal channel carries the primary message. Audi­ ence members listening to a public speaker, for example, com­ municate their responses, attitudes, and questions almost exclu­ sively through nonverbal signals, without saying a single word. Active listeners look at the speaker and respond honestly with smiles, nods or other forms of body language, which can im­ prove the quality of communication and keep the dynamic circle intact (Osbom & Osbom, 1994).

It is important to remember that we send nonverbal signals all the time, whether we are listening or speaking. The most profound impact of nonverbal communication is the degree to which it reinforces or contradicts other communication chan­ nels. The presidential debate between Richard Nixon and John Kennedy in 1960 - the first ever televised - is often cited as an

55

example of how nonverbal channels can be more powerful than the verbal message.

After the debate there was considerable disagreement as to which candidate won the contest. Television viewers generally believed that Kennedy had carried the day, while those who listened to the debate on the radio felt Nixon had prevailed. The difference in the perceptions of these groups had to do with the nonverbal messages that were visually apparent on television, but not discernible on radio. Nixon's nonverbal sig­ nals made him appear ill at ease and nervous. His stance was closed, his shoulders slightly turned away from the camera. He was a man with heavy facial hair and his five o'clock shadow was not well concealed by his stage makeup, making him look a little "shady." Kennedy, on the other hand, looked relaxed and vibrant. He used open gestures and faced the camera di­ rectly. His hands were often open as if ready to embrace. He was clean-cut and he smiled.

The difference in appearances strongly influenced the televi­ sion viewers, to the point that their impression of the event was significantly different from the impression of radio listeners. Television viewers felt more comfortable with Kennedy because the nonverbal portions of his presentation were complementary to his verbal message. Nixon was the favorite going in to the debate, but Kennedy was in the White House soon afterward.

T e x t 6 '

Leadership in Organizations

Gary A. Y , Ph D. State University of New York at Albany. S. 1., s. a.

Leaders adapt their behavior to the requirements, con­ straints, and opportunities presented by the leadership situa­ tion. Although this process of adaptation has not received

56

the attention it deserves, the research to date does provide some valuable insight into the way leader behavior is influ­ enced by situational variables.

Role theory has proved useful in helping to understand how the process occurs. A leader's perception of role requirements will be influenced by role senders, task characteristics, and feedback about subordinate behavior and performance. Differ­ ent kinds of role conflicts are common, and research has begun to identify how these conflicts are resolved. The leader's needs, values, and interests influence perception of role requirements in addition to directly influencing the leader's preference among behavior alternatives. Expectancy theory provides fur­ ther insight into the leader's choice of behavior.

Osborn and Hunt's Adaptive-Reactive Theory postulates that macro variables such as organization structure and the ex­ ternal environment are primary determinants of leader behav­ ior. Leader discretion is lower in highly centralized or formal­ ized organizations, when subunits are large or interdependent, and when there is a complex, unstable environment.

The most important research designs for studying situ­ ational determinants of leader behavior are the comparative field study, the longitudinal field study, and the laboratory ex­ periment. Each approach has various advantages and limita­ tions, so a combination of approaches is desirable.

Research using these approaches indicates that several as­ pects of the situation have important implications for leader behavior. These situational determinants include level in the authority hierarchy, function of the leader's unit, task charac­ teristics and technology, size of organizational unit, lateral in­ terdependence, crisis conditions, and subordinate competence.

57

Stewart's extensive comparative research has identified ad­ ditional demands and constraints that shape a manager's be­ havior. The pattern of interactions with subordinates, superiors, peers, and outside persons will be affected by the demands made by each and by the difficulty of meeting these demands. The type of work pattern depends on the nature of the work - specifically, whether it is self-generating or responding, repeti­ tive or variable, uncertain or predictable, fragmented or sus­ tained, and subject to tight deadlines or not. Managerial expo­ sure also affects role requirements.

Despite all of the demands and constraints a manager faces, some choice of behavior remains. Managers define their roles differently, even when they have similar positions. It is impor­ tant to consider the compatibility of leader skills and habitual behavior patterns with the role requirements for a managerial position when deciding whom to select for the position.

Examination of differences in leader behavior across situa­ tions provides some insight into reasons for leadership effec­ tiveness, especially when role requirements are examined. The research on situational determinants was considered, together with research on consequences of leader behavior in different situations, and some tentative guidelines about the relevance of 19 specific behaviors were proposed.

T e x t 7

Placemaking

Schneekloth L H , Shibley R. G. The Art and Practice of Building Communities. New York; Toronto: Wiley J. & sons, inc., s. a.

Placemaking has emerged from our work as academic practi­ tioners engaged in a sustained inquiry about the activity of mak­ ing and maintaining places. Our ideas about placemaking, which

58

we share here in four stories of practice, are embedded in the con­ cept place and grow out of a critical practice of making places. The theoretical and academic insights we offer emerged from the practice rather than being laid on it. We write with multiple per­ spectives and intentions and gather insights from many sources: academic, professional, and intensely personal.

In the initiation of a practice that now spans over twenty years, we had a vague idea about a focus on the interdependent relationship of acts of environmental and organizational change. We set out to learn by doing in the most immediate and place-based way we could, suspending questions about the nature of knowledge and theory in favor of exploring the ca­ pacity of place and people-in-place relationships to construct knowledge and theory. We are fortunate to be able to engage in professional practice while teaching in university-based profes­ sional schools of architecture and planning that are also con­ cerned with landscape architecture, interior design, and facili­ ties management. From this academic and professional stand­ point, we have been able to engage in placemaking by drawing on the perspectives and critiques of the different worldviews.

Working as participant observers in our own practice, we wrote articles and book chapters about the critical capacities we observed in placemaking, acknowledging that the reflec­ tions were not in the mainstream of academic theory, nor were they necessarily consistent with the dictates of any single dis­ cipline or professional practice. We wrote about the implica­ tions of assuming human competence in any intervention as a starting point in discussions about both what to do and how best to do it. We struggled to understand the necessity and power of a collaborative practice that included a wide range of legitimate and "illegitimate" insights depending on one's stand­

59

point. The processes of our placemaking work and of our aca­ demic reflection were messy, driven largely by what im­ pressed, excited, saddened, fulfilled, or otherwise provoked us.

At times we have been asked by our colleagues to explain our peculiar form of intervention and ways of working which have emerged in collaboration with our different clients. What did we do, how did we do it, and how did we know it was any good? Many of our early writings were attempts to frame re­ sponses to these questions. This book continues that conversa­ tion by demonstrating our placemaking practices as they emerged (and are emerging) in several different contexts. As such, it invites people to critique and, when appropriate, situate insights from our placemaking stories into the context of their own standpoints, practices, academic intentions, and places.

We are indebted to contemporary postmodern theory in lit­ erature, philosophy, education, and feminist studies. This lit­ erature at its base posits the uncertainty of meaning inherent in any discussion. It reinforces for us the necessity of abandoning the security of any professional perspective and of creating a space in every intervention to affirm specific meanings, always leaving room for further critique and confirmation as the con­ text shifts. In this literature, neither science nor art nor profes­ sional procedure has the moral authority to tell us what to do; each is simply one of several collaborators in the process of doing. The way of thinking embodied in the postmodern per­ spective has provided a critical lens through which we have viewed our practice, and we use this theoretical standpoint to place our practice in an emerging intellectual tradition.

But this perspective is by no means the only voice in the book. The structure of the text is four stories enfolded within an introduction and epilogue, layered with endnotes. While the

60