1. Sovereignty Task: Read the text and put the words in bold back into the correct order:

The shortest and easiest definition international is of under sovereignty law the ability to enter into legal relations with other states. Sovereign states have the legal capacity to enter into with on their own behalf relations others.

In international law, the term sovereignty may be used a for as legal synonym independence. A state will not exist if it is under the another control state of. Before independence, colonies were territories sovereign under of the authority other states and therefore could not be considered as states under international law. Sovereignty is a requirement that often causes practice difficulty in. The main question in this regard is whether it matters gain states their how independence, and inevitably, arises the question of self-determination, and the more controversial question of secession.

Task 1: Read the text and answer the questions below:

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Individuals

The position of individuals under international law has evolved significantly during the last century. More commonly accepted than ever before is the idea that individuals have both rights and responsibilities under international law. Human rights law, for example, has tried to establish that every person around the world has certain basic rights that cannot be violated.

At the same time, individual accountability under international law has been established, first at the Nuremburg trials and recently at the International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda and the dawn of the International Criminal Court, the first permanent international institution to hold individuals responsible for violations of the laws of armed conflict or for crimes against the peace and humanity – such as genocide.

Comprehension check:

1. Do individuals have rights that cannot be violated?

2. What are individuals responsible for under international law?

Task 2: Make the following text complete by translating the words and phrases in brackets.

The question whether individuals may enjoy international (правосубъектность) remains a controversial issue. Can individuals act as legal persons in international law, out of state representation? To answer to this question, it should be established than individuals may be (предоставлять; жаловать) certain rights and duties under international law. These followings paragraphs provide (несколько) examples. After World War II, war criminals were judged and condemned (приговаривать, выносить приговор) under international law. The responsibility for war crimes and crimes against humanity was founded in international law, independent of, in this case, German or Japanese law. The (приговор, решение суда; заключение суда в отношении) of the Nuremberg International Military Tribunal 1946, followed later by the Tokyo International Military Tribunal 1948, demonstrated that individuals have rights and duties towards the whole community of nations and not only towards their national state. As the Nuremberg Tribunal pointed out, international crimes are (совершить преступление) by men and not by abstract entities. Individuals cannot in such (обстоятельство; факт) hide the responsibility of their acts behind abstract concepts such as state, government or military (орган власти; орган управления). Direct responsibility of individuals under international law was reaffirmed by the 1948 UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide: "Persons committing genocide or any of the other acts enumerated in article III shall be punished, whether they are constitutionally responsible (правитель), public officials or individuals. Individuals may (нести ) international responsibility for other international crimes: piracy is a well-established criminal act under international law. A pirate is a hostis humani generis (an enemy of all mankind) and for this (причина; основание; мотив) may be arrested and judged by any state, regardless of his nationality. The development of the international law of human rights indicates that individuals may (обладать (правом); пользоваться (правом); осуществлять (право) specific rights and freedoms, even against their national state. Furthermore, according to certain treaties, individuals may have a (процедурный; процессуальный) capacity. Under the 1950 European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, individuals have the right to appear on their own behalf before the European Court of Justice. This (направление, общее направление, тенденция) indicates that, in some cases, individuals may be recognized with rights and duties under international law. However, this limited personality is always (условный; зависящий от обстоятельств) on the agreement of the states. This is the reason why the question of legal personality enjoyed by individuals under international law is highly (спорный, дискуссионный). States do not need authorization to enjoy rights and duties under international law. International organizations are appointed by states but (приобретать) their own personality. Individuals cannot enjoy any right or any duty under international law without the agreement of the states, usually expressed by treaty. For example, the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women intends to (вырывать с корнем, искоренять, уничтожать) all kinds of discrimination. This capacity is, however, exceptional and limited to the European Court of Justice. Under the International Court of Justice Statute only states have a procedural capacity.

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