4. Sentence as multidimensional phenomenon

The sentence is the most complex language unit. Its complexity stems from the multitude of its components whose number is not structurally lim­ited: the sentence may be endlessly long and any sentence may be prolonged though the number of elements within every sentence is finite. The complex­ity of the sentence also results from the multidimensional relations between its components. These are relations between sentence parts and relations eonnecting components of word combinations as well as relations of linear sequence of sentence elements and roles played by separate components in sentence or word combination meanings. And finally, the sentence com­plexity stems from the multitude of its semantic and formal correlation. As a result, the sentence should be analyzed only after its various aspects have been defined.

The sentence, being a language unit and a sign, is characterized by form and meaning. The sentence form is specific. The sentence usually consists of a number of components (since one-member sentences are rather rare). Thus, it is important to study the process of sentence-construction. In other words, we should clarify the difference between the sentence and a set of words. This aspect of the sentence is called structural.

Formal markers of grammatical meanings also require analysis. Affir­mation vs negation, imperative meaning vs interrogative meaning - these as well as other meanings should be discussed within syntactic study of the sentence. Formal markers of meanings are also part of the structural aspect of the sentence.

The second aspect of the sentence - semantic - has been touched upon above. Semantic properties characterize sentence components: subordinate clauses and sentence parts. Certain semantic relations exist between parts ­of the complex sentence. And finally, alongside of the functional-semantic meanings "object" or "adverbial modifier", etc., sentence elements may be classified according to such role meanings as "agent", "patient", "instru­ment", etc. (see p. p. 48-51). Both semantic roles and role configurations are included in semantic sentence study.

The sentence may also be considered from the pragmatic point of view. Pragmatics means, roughly speaking, use of sentences in speech acts, in communication. The sentence is a language unit that performs a very impor­tant function, i.e. it is used as main unit of verbal communication.

As a result, one may classify sentences choosing various criteria: struc­ture (complete - incomplete, extended - unextended, compound - compos­ite sentences,), semantics (declarative - interrogative - imperative sentenc­es) or pragmatics (directive, commissive, assertive, quesitive, performative sentences, etc.).

The three aspects - structural, semantic and pragmatic - form a trichot­omy that correlates with form, meaning and usage.

The sentence is characterized by the structural, semantic and prag­matic aspects.

The structural aspect of the sentence

According to their structure sentences may be classified into simple (two-member and one-member, complete and elliptical, extended and unextended); composite (compound and complex, syndetic and asyndetic, etc). There also exist the so-called complicated sentences intermediate between simple and composite sentences. To them belong all the sentences with predicative con­structions (complexes), such as the Objective-with-the-Infinitive construction, the For-phrase, etc. Sentences containing the so-called dependent appendixes are also referred to the complicated simple sentences. E.g.: Sam is not so clever as Alice. 2. Denis tried to escape but in vain.

One shouldn't confuse elliptical sentences with and one-member sentences. Elliptical sentences are considered to be colloquial variants of the corresponding two-member sentences, because any missing part can be restored (retraced) from the speech situation, (Where is Tom? - Here), while no missing component of a one-member sentence can be retraced. E.g.: 1. Dusk, of a summer night (T. Dreiser). 2. To run! 3. Fire! (but: A gentleman to strike a lady?! - a two-member infinitival sentence because it has both a subject and a predicate).

There exist the problem of the only main part of one-member sentences: whether it is the subject without the predicate (as in the sentence like "Dusk") or the predicate without the subject (as in the one-word sentence "To run!". Acad. A. Shakhmatov maintained that the chief part of a one-member sentence is correspondingly the subject or the predicate, as the case may be. Acad.

V. V. Vinogradov, however, proposed to call the only main part just "the main part" without further specifications (for a more detailed treatment of the issue see: Ilyish, 1971: 250-253).

It should be borne in mind that one-member sentences may be both un-extended and extended. Cf: 1. To run! (an unextended infinitival one-member sentence). 2. Dusk, ... (an unextended nominative one-member sentence). 3. Don't tell her about it. 4. And what if he had seen her? 5. Strange, how different she had become! 6. No people, whom I knew. Sentences 3, 4, 5, 6 are extended one-member sentences, besides, sentences 4, 5, 6 are complex sentences with one-member main clauses. The following sentences are also considered to be one-member sentences. /. Why not go there? 2. Why go there now? 3. Even you. Brutus?!

Quasi-sentences

Besides the ordinary simple sentences some grammarians also single out the so-called quasi-sentences (sec, for instance: Иванова и др., 1981).

Ordinary sentences narrate something (or state facts), or contain a ques­tion (ask for some information), or induce the addressee to do something. They are characterized by a subject-predicate base, describe a situation of the objective reality and differ by the mode of correlation of their content with reality, while quasi-sentences do not contain any new information or ask for information and they have no subject-predicate base. They arc merely sentences-addresses or salutation sentences (vocatives), or exclamatory sentences used only to express emotions, or, at last, formula-like sentences for metacommunication purposes used for establishing or severing speech communication (speech contact): Hallo!.... Good-bye! Quasi-sentences are given the status of sentences only because in the flow of speech they can occupy the position of an ordinary sentence and possess an intonational pat­tern but they are deprived of any nominative force and can be characterized only by the implicit content of qualitative evaluation. For instance, the word "John" depending on the situation may express different emotional shades (reproach, admonition, admiration, praise, etc.). But such content depends only upon the context and intonation, i.e., it is grammatically irrelevant (Иванова и др., 1981: 176).

Due to the high level of conventionality and absence of any nominative content quasi-sentences can be easily substituted for (replaced by) extra­linguistic (or, rather, paralinguistic) signs (signals). For instance, instead of calling "John!" we can attract his attention by a gesture, by a cough or tap­ping on the table, etc. In conclusion it must be noted that quasi-sentcnecs arc utterances (on the level of speech) but they are not sentences on the level of language system. We hold it thet some interjections belong here.

All sentences may be classified as to the purpose of utterance and ac­cording to their structure. From the point of view of the рифове of utterance sentences may be divided into: declarative (affirmative and negative, une­motional and emotional), interrogative (unemotional and emotional), incen­tive and, at last, exclamatory sentences which differ from purely emotional sentences by their structure: What fine weather we are having to-day! (or: How long you have been coming!) (Ну і довго ж ти йшов!).

According to their structure sentences may be classified into simple (two-member and one-member, complete and elliptical), composite (com­pound and complex, compound-complex, syndetical and asyndetical, divis­ible and indivisible, etc.

There also exist the so-called simple complicated sentences intermedi­ate between simple and composite sentences.

Elliptical and one-member sentences

One shouldn't confuse elliptical and one-member sentences. Ellipti­cal sentences are considered to be colloquial variants of the corresponding two-member sentences, because any missing part of them can be restored (retraced) from the speech situation or from the previous context, while no missing component of a one-member sentence can be retraced from the con­text. E.g.: 1. Where have you been all this time? - In the garden (a two-member elliptical sentence), but: 1. Dusk, of a summer night (Th. Dreiser). (A one-member nominative sentence). 2. To run! (a one-member infinitival sentence). But: A gentleman to strike a lady?! (A two-member infinitival sentence as it has both the subject and the predicate though the predicate is expressed by a non-finite form of the verb).

There exist the problem of the status of the only part of one-member sentences: whether it is the subject without any predicate (as in the sen­tences like "Dusk. ") or the predicate without the subject (as in the one-word sentence "To run!"). Acad. A. Shakhmatov maintained that the only part of a one-member sentence is correspondingly the subject or the predicate, as the case may be. Acad. V. V. Vinogradov, however, proposed to call the only main part just the main part without further specification because this main part performs the function of the subject and predicate simultaneously (For a more detailed treatment of the issue see: Ilyish, 1971: 233-250).

It should be bome in mind that one-member sentences may be both unextended and extended. Cf.: 1. To run! (an unextended infinitival one-member sentence); 2. To run away from here! (an extended one-member infinitival sentence); 3. Dusk,., (an unextended nominative one-member sentence); 4. Dusk, of a summer night... (an extended one-member nomina­tive sentence); 5. Don 7 tell her about it! 6. And what if he had seen her? 7. Strange, how different she had become! 8. No people whom I knew. (Sen­tences 5,6,7,8 are also extended one-member sentences, besides, sentences 6,7,8 are complex sentences with one-member main clauses). The following sentences are also considered to be one-member sentences: 1. Why not go there? 2. Why go there now?! (For the quasi-sentences see p. 284).

The core of syntax is the study of the sentence. A sentence is a language unit consisting of one or more words combined in accordance with the grammatical rules of the language and serving as the chief means of conveying a thought and the speaker's attitude to reality. Sentences may be regarded

• from the point of view of the purpose of the utterance;

• from the point of view of their structure and meaning.