Почему анизотропные свойства соединений должны быть приняты во внимание?

3)…Английский для Экономистов Агабекян

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Lesson_7_Text 1 USA

The United States of America is the 4^th largest country in the world after Russia, Canada and China. It occupies the central part of the North American continent.

The United States of America is a federal republic, consisting of 50 states including the states of Alaska and Hawaii. Outlying areas include Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, and the US Virgin Islands.

The northern boundary is partly formed by the Great Lakes and the St Lawrence River; the southern boundary is partly formed by the Rio Grande. United States also has a sea-border with Russia.

The total area of the United States (including the District of Columbia) is 9,809,155 sq km, of which 1,700,139 sq km are in Alaska and 28,313 sq. km are in Hawaii. Inland waters cover 507,788 sq km of the total area.

The country is washed by 3 oceans: the Arctic, the Atlantic and the Pacific. The country has many lakes, with the Great Lakes included. There are also many rivers on the US territory. The longest of them are the Mississippi, the Missouri, the Columbia, ,the Rio Grande and some others. On the US territory there are mountains and lowlands. The highest mountains are the Rocky Mountains, the Cordillera and the Sierra Nevada. The highest peak, Mount McKinley, is located in Alaska.

The climate conditions are rather different. The country is rich in natural and mineral resources: oil, gas, iron ore, coal and various metals.

The USA is a highly developed industrial and agricultural country. The main industrial branches are aircraft, rocket, automobile, electronics, radio-engineer­ing and others.

Americans are made up from nearly all races and nations. The country population is over' 250 mln. The national symbol of the USA is its national flag «Stars and Stripes*, having 50 white stars and 13 white and red stripes on its field, symbolising the number of the original and present day states.

Officially the country comprises 50 states and one District of Columbia. The states differ in size, population and economic development. Each state has its own capital. The capital of the USA is Washington. It is situated in the District of Columbia on the banks of the Potomac river and is named after the 1^st US President - George Washington. There are many large cities in the country: New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit, San-Francisco, Cleveland and some others.

The United States of America is a federal state, headed by the President. According to the US Constitution the powers of the Government are divided into 3 branches: legislative, executive and judicial.

The legislative power belongs to the Congress consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate represents the states while the House of Representatives — the population. The executive power belongs to the President and his Administration (Vice-President and Cabinet of Ministers). The judicial power belongs to the Supreme Court and the system of Federal, state and district courts.

There are several political parties in the USA, the largest of them are the Republican (symbolised by a donkey) and the Democratic (symbolised by an elephant).

Ответьте на вопросы:

1. When, according to the author, the US became a world's leading industrial nation?

2. What tendency took place by the end of the Civil War?

3. What is said in the text about the development of the service industry?

4. What is said about the size of the manufacturing sec­tor of the economy?

5. What role does the government play in the modern economy of the USA?

6. What was the US GNP in 1993?

7. What, according to the text, are the three major sec­tors of American economy?

What are the examples of tertiary activities?

Ответьте на вопросы:

1. Когда, согласно автору, США стали ведущей в мире промышленной страной? 6. Каков был американский ВНП в 1993?

2. Какая тенденция имела место к концу гражданской войны? 7. Что, согласно тексту, три главных сектора американской экономики?

3. Что сказано в тексте о развитии сферы услуг? Каковы примеры третичных действий?

4. Что сказано о размере промышленного сектора экономики?

5. Какую роль правительство играет в современной экономике США?

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Lesson_7_Text 1 США

Соединенные Штаты Америки являются 4-ой самой большой страной в мире после России, Канады и Китая. Это занимает центральную часть североамериканского континента.

Соединенные Штаты Америки являются федеративной республикой, состоя из 50 государств включая штаты Аляска и Гавайи. Отдаленные области включают Пуэрто-Рико, Американское Самоа, Гуам и американские Виргинские острова.

Северная граница частично сформирована Великими озерами и рекой Св. Лаврентия; южная граница частично сформирована Рио-Гранде. У Соединенных Штатов также есть морская граница с Россией.

Общей площадью Соединенных Штатов (включая Округ Колумбия) являются 9,809,155 кв. км, из которых 1,700,139 кв. км находятся в Аляске, и 28,313 кв.км находятся на Гавайях. Внутренние воды покрывают 507,788 кв. км общей площади.

Страна вымыта 3 океанами: Арктика, Атлантика и Тихий океан. У страны есть много озер с включенными Великими озерами. На американской территории есть также много рек. Самыми длинными из них является Миссисипи, Миссури, Колумбия, Рио-Гранде и некоторые другие. На американской территории есть горы и низменность. Самыми высокими горами являются Скалистые горы, Кордильеры и Сьерра-Невада. Самый высокий пик, Гора Мак-Кинли, расположен в Аляске.

Условия климата довольно отличаются. Страна богата природными ресурсами и полезными ископаемыми: нефть, газ, железная руда, уголь и различные металлы.

США являются чрезвычайно развитой индустриальной и сельскохозяйственной страной. Главные индустриальные отделения являются самолетом, ракетой, автомобилем, электроникой, радио-инженерии и другими.

Американцы составлены от почти всех гонок и стран. Население страны по' 250 млн. Национальный символ США является своим национальным флагом «Звезды и Полосы *, имея 50 белых звезд и 13 белых и красных полос на его области, символизируя число государств оригинального и настоящего момента.

Официально страна включает 50 государств и один Округ Колумбия. Государства отличаются по размеру, населению и экономическому развитию. У каждого государства есть свой собственный капитал. Столицей США является Вашингтон. Это расположено в Округе Колумбия на берегу реки Потомак и названо в честь 1-ого американского президента - George Washington. В стране есть много больших городов: Нью-Йорк, Лос-Анджелес, Чикаго, Филадельфия, Детройт, Сан-Франциско, Кливленд и некоторые другие.

Соединенные Штаты Америки являются федерацией, возглавляемой президентом. Согласно американской Конституции полномочия правительства разделены на 3 отделения: законодательный, исполнительный и судебный.

Законодательная власть принадлежит Конгрессу, состоящему из Сената и палата представителей. Сенат представляет государства в то время как палата представителей — население. Исполнительная власть принадлежит президенту и его правительству (Вице-президент и Кабинет Министров). Судебная власть принадлежит Верховному Суду и системе федеральных, государственных и окружных судов.

В США есть несколько политических партий, самый большой из них республиканец (символизируемый ослом) и демократическое (символизируемый слоном).

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DEFINING MARKETING

A prominent economist Philip Kotler defines marketing as «a social and managerial process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and want through creating and exchanging products and values with others.* Marketing research is used to assess the market's response to the firm's marketing inputs which include promotional activities such as price discounting, placement of in-store displays, multimedia advertising, and couponing; expanding distribution; and product development and enhancement. The goal of marketing research is to assist the firm in determining the most effective, i.e. most profitable, mix of marketing inputs given knowledge of the marketplace.

As a formal scientific discipline marketing research began in the early twentieth century with most analyses being based on survey data. In the 1930s, the A. C. Nielsen Company began collecting in-store data using manual audits. Today, with the advent of scanning technology, the amount of timely data available from stores and household panels has grown exponentially. Coincident with this data explosion, the data delivery systems and the techniques used to analyze the data have become increasingly sophisticated. Marketing research is an integral part of organizations in both the consumer durable and nondurable goods sectors, and.in recent years the use of marketing principles has become increasing prevalent among nonprofit and government sectors.

Marketing research is interdisciplinary requiring the knowledge of economists, operations researchers, psychologists, and statisticians. For the economist, the economic theory of consumer behavior and the theory of the firm provide basic building blocks. Marketing research can be viewed as an operational or tactical activity and as a strategic activity. Although both activities require knowledge of the workings of the marketplace at both the macroeconomic and microeconomic levels, tactical -analyses focus on monitoring a product's performance and testing the effectiveness of marketing programs relative to competitors. Strategic research involves selecting and optimizing marketing opportunities.

In order to understand the marketplace, the researcher must define the market in terms of both the geographic unit and the product class and collect data. Data on consumer purchases permit an analyst to determine what was sold and how particular brands performed relative to each other. In addition to sales and price information, causal data assist the analyst in understanding the rеаок that sales took place. Examples of causal data xv<-newspaper advertising, which indicates the extent ">! retailer advertising support, display activity, and coupon ads. Another important source of information for understanding the source of sales is television advertising. Measuring the effects of television advertising is relatively difficult owing to the dynamic effects such advertising has on consumer behavior, however.

Once the data are collected, the analyst may choose to evaluate the information by simply looking at the raw series together over time or compute straightforward measures such as market share in order to arrive at a qualitative assessment of market activity. Statistical models might be estimated in order to address issues such as temporary price reduction, effectiveness, the extent of cannibalization due to promotional activity, i.e. the extent to which sales of one specific product decline as a result of promoting another similar product produced by the same manufacturer, the competitive effects of promotions, differences between markets, competitive pricing points, and long-term price elasticities.

Forecasting is an activity likely to be undertaken by a business economist working in a marketing research department. Conventionally, business economists have been responsible for producing forecasts for the macroeconomic environment or for activity within industry groups. More recently, forecasting movements in mature product categories, in segments within categories, and in brands has increased in importance.

Forecasting the success or failure of new product introductions is also important. New product introductions require a considerable amount of a firms resources, and failure to read the marketplace correctly and early in the development process can lead to costly errors. The development of a new brand begins with the identification of new market opportunities. Consumer survey research directed at identifying the market response to the brand concept and elements of the marketing mix, e.g., pricing, is typically conducted. On the basis of the survey a firm may decide to continue with the development plans for the brand, revise current plans in response to the survey results and retest, or cancel development plans completely. Comparisons may also be made between attitudes toward the new concepts and existing products.

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