24. Types of Connotation

Connotation is the figurative cultural assumptions that the image implies or suggests. It involves emotional overtones, subjective interpretation, socio-cultural values, and ideological assumptions.

The 4 main types of connotation

1. Stylistic. When association concern the situation in which the word is uttered the social circumstances (formal, familiar…), the social relationships between the interlocutors (polite, rough…), the type of purpose of communication (poetic, official…) Eg.: horse - neutral, steed – poetic, nag – slang, geegee – baby l-ge.

2. Emotional. Is acquired by the word as a result of its frequent use in context corresponding to emotional situation or cause the R-nt is associated with emotions.

3. Evaluative. Expresses approval\ disapproval.

4. Expressive\ intensifying.

24. Polysemy. Problems Inherent in the Concept of Polysemy.

In a worktable

24. Homonymy. Types of homonyms.

Homonymy. Different in meaning, but identical in sound or spelling form

Homonyms can be of 3 kinds:

1. Homonyms proper (the sound & the spelling are identical) bat – bat - flying animal (летучая мышь) - cricket bat (бита, back - part of body, away from the front, go to back

2. Homophones (the same sound form but different spelling) flower – flour, sole – soul, rain – reign, bye-by-buy

3. Homographs (the same spelling) tear [iə] – tear [εə, lead [i:] – lead [e]

Homonyms in English are very numerous.

Among the other ways of creating homonyms the following processes must be mentioned:

From the viewpoint of their origin homonyms are sometimes divided into historical and etymological. Historical homonyms are those which result from the breaking up of polysemy; then one polysemantic word will split up into two or more separate words. Etymo1ogiсal homonyms are words of different origin which come to be alike in sound or in spelling (and may be both written and pronounced alike).

Borrowed and native words can coincide in form, thus producing homonyms (as in the above given examples). In other cases homonyms are a result of borrowing when several different words become identical in sound or spelling. E.g. the Latin vitim - "wrong", "an immoral habit" has given the English vice - вада "evil conduct"; the Latin vitis -"spiral" has given the English ''vice" - тиски "apparatus with strong jaws in which things can be hold tightly"; the Latin vice - "instead of", "in place of" will be found in vice - president.

24. Jargon and slang.

Slang is the use of informal words and expressions that are not considered standard in the speaker's dialect or language. Slang is often to be found in areas of the lexicon that refer to things considered taboo (see euphemism). It is often used to identify with one's peers and, although it may be common among young people, it is used by people of all ages and social groups.

Jargon is terminology which is especially defined in relationship to a specific activity, profession, group, or event. The philosophe Condillac observed in 1782 that "Every science requires a special language because every science has its own ideas." As a rationalist member of the Enlightenment he continued, "It seems that one ought to begin by composing this language, but people begin by speaking and writing and the language remains to be composed."^[1]

In other words, the term covers the language used by people who work in a particular area or who have a common interest. Much like slang,^[2] it can develop as a kind of short-hand, to express ideas that are frequently discussed between members of a group, though it can also be developed deliberately using chosen terms. A standard term may be given a more precise or unique usage among practitioners of a field. In many cases this causes a barrier to communication with those not familiar with the language of the field. As an example, the words RAM, bit, byte, CPU, and hexadecimal are jargon terms related to computing.^[2]