20. The role of verification process.

21. Transformational approach.

22. Denotative approach.

23. Communicational approach.

We communicate to transfer information from one person to another.Translation helps people communicate if they speak different languages.Thus, translation is a two-facet phenomenon: on the one hand, it is the process of transferring information; on the other hand, it is the result of this process. By theresult is meant a new text created in translating.The communicative situation consists of several elements:

A speaker or writer (an author)makes ameaningful utterance called the text and addresses it to the listener, reader, or receptor, who understands the purport of the text and reacts to it.The translation situation doubles the elements of communication.

Thereceptor of the original text in turn becomes a translator who makes a translatedtext, or 

target text

intended for the receptor speaking another language:The source text is the text to be translated. The target text is theend-product,thetranslatedtext.For thetranslationto be adequateand effective, the target text should be equivalent to the source text. Indeed, whenreading tragedies by Shakespeare in Russian, the receptor is but seldom aware thatthe words s/he sees in the text were not written by Shakespeare but by some other  person, a translator. The form of the target text is new but the purport and thecontent are very close to the original. Paradoxically, the better a translator's work,the less his/her work is observed. The translated text is attributed to the author speaking another language and this text is used everywhere as if it were theoriginal.Thus

translation

unifies two different language speech acts in onecommunicative situation. It can be defined as a special type of communicationintended to convey information between the participants speaking two differentlanguages. As E. Nida and C. Taber put it, “translating consists of reproducing inthe receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-languagemeaning and secondly in terms of style.

24. The strength and limitations of different approaches.

25. Various ranks of translation.

26. Means to ensure adequate translation, suggested by different scholars and translation ranks.

27. Field of application and hierarchy of transformational, denotative and communicational approaches depending on type of translation.

28. Meaning, equivalence and extralinguistic information as three basic components of translation.

29. The use of different approaches depending on translation variety.

30. The notion of equivalence and translation units.

Since the formal description of any language is based on distinguishing a system of interrelated language units, it is possible to assume that the process of translation may be viewed on the basis of distinguishing certain units (units of translation). There are different approaches to distinguishing units of translation.

APPROACH # 1

The unit of translation is the smallest unit of the SL text, functioning in the process of translation more or less independently. The units of translation may be different for different languages and different kinds of translation. There are 2 kinds of translation: written and oral.

In written translation the unit of translation is usually represented by a sentence or sometimes 2 consecutive sentences – if one of them is structurally or semantically incomplete. These sentences usually contain all the information necessary to recreate the structure of a corresponding sentence in the TL. The sentence – is a speech unit which contains a more or less complete thought and that is why it may function more or less independently in the process of translation.

ex. After all they all have day jobs. Not so Seed. – Зрештою, у них у всіх є робота, окрім Сіда. (the 2nd sentence is incomplete)

Your presence at the meeting is not necessary. Nor is it desirable. – Ваша присутність на зустрічі є необов’язковою і навіть небажаною.

In oral translation, especially synchronized translation, the unit of translation is usually represented by a sense group (a group of words, which expresses the main idea) or a sentence, especially if elements important for understanding are located at the end of the sentence.

ex. Mediators from 3 west African ECOWAS nations planned today to visit rebels in Ivory Coast as France flew in 70 more soldiers to assist the Ivorian government. – Сьогодні посередники від 3 африканських країн-членів ЕКОВАС планували зустрітися з повстанцями в Кот-д’Івуарі. В той час як Франція відрядила до країни ще 70 військових на допомогу івуарійському урядові.

(This sentence represents 2 units of translation, since it consists of 2 sence groups. The 1st unit of tr. is ..., the 2nd - …)

APPROACH # 2 (= LEVELS OF TRANSLATION)

The unit of translation is the smallest SL unit which is translated as a whole. It means that in the TLT it is impossible to discover TL units reproducing the meaning of the constituents, which make up the SL unit.

ex. pretty woman – красунечка (не можна віднайти безпосереднього відбиття лексичних одиниць)

help yourself – пригощайтеся (translated as a whole)

Each unit of translation belongs to a certain language level. So, every translation is performed at a definite language level.

The phoneme level

The phoneme – is a speech sound, the smallest 1-facet language unit, it has a form but has no meaning. This unit of translation is mainly relevant to the translation of proper names, geographical names, internationalisms, units of specific national lexicon and neologisms.

Bush – Буш (а не Кущ), гривня – hryvnia, dollar – долар,

computer – комп’ютер, вареники – varenyky

The morpheme level

The morpheme – is the smallest indivisible 2-facet language unit (has both form and meaning). It is the smallest sense unit.

superprofit – надприбуток, cloudless – безхмарний

The word level

The word – is the basic 2-facet language unit. The word is the smallest independent sense unit. Words are divisible (for morphemes).

blackboard – дошка ( - if translated at a word level, if translated as чорна дошка – it is a morpheme level)

strawberry – полуниця, dog – собака

The word-combination level

The word-combination – is the largest 2-facet lexical unit comprising more that 1 word.

first night – прем’єра

to come up roses – чудово виходити

The sentence level

The sentence – a 2-facet speech unit which conveys a more or less complete thought.The sentence may express a statement,a command or a question.

Every dark cloud has a silver lining. – Немає лиха без добра.

A cat may look at a king. – Дивитися не заборонено.

Будь здоров! – Bless you!

The text level

The text – is the largest 2-facet language unit, consisting of sentences bound by the same idea. This unit of translation may function in poetry.