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The refrigerating plant is to provide effective maintenance of the tem-peratures in refrigerated spaces as may be required for the cargo carried, depending upon its type and conditions of navigation area as well as cold treatment of cargo. Refrigerated spaces are cargo holds and spaces provided with equipment capable of maintaining reduced temperatures and intended for the carriage of refrigerated and frozen cargoes. The refrigerating plants of ships of unrestricted service are to provide maintenance of required temperatures in the refrigerated cargo spaces at work under the following environment conditions: sea water temperature not below +320C and ambient air temperature not below +400C. The design environmental conditions of refrigerating plants on fishing vessels and special purpose ships which are equipped with other refrigerating facilities may be different. In addition to the refrigerating plants of cargo spaces they are usually equipped with other refrigerating facilities, e.g. for freezing, cooling, ice making etc.
The main equipment usually comprises at least two similar condensers and two similar evaporators, intercascade heat exchangers and inter-mediate pressure vessels. Capacity of the refrigerating plant should be sufficient to reduce the cargo temperature to the required temperature as quickly as it is necessary for preservation of the cargo.
Pipe systems between apparatus and machinery is joined in such a way as to provide operation of the refrigerating units at various combinations of apparatus, machinery and facilities necessary for their independent operation. The apparatus is fitted with connections for suction and delivery pipes providing transfer of the refrigerant and its discharge from the apparatus. There are usually two circulating pumps one of which is to be a standby pump. If the refrigerant system is designed to work properly without pumps the standby pump need not be installed.
Refrigerant is a working medium of the refrigerating cycle. Refrigerants are usually subdivided into two groups: freons and ammonia. Secondary refrigerant is a substance for heat removal from refrigerated objects and heat transfer to a refrigerant, e.g. a brine.
The secondary refrigerant system serving a single group of cold consumers comprises at least two circulating pumps, one of which being standby.
Parts, assemblies and securing items of the refrigerating equipment are subject to the dynamic loads, excessive pressure, variable and low temperatures and qualities and main characteristics of materials used for their manufacture should consider it. Besides the choice of materials depends on physical and chemical properties of the refrigerant.
THE RIG
Oil is contained in rocks under the ground and in rocks under the sea. To find it, oilmen have to drill boreholes. The equipment for drilling these holes is the drilling rig. Most rig work on the rotary system. A bit rotates at the end of a pipe. As the bit rotates, it cuts and crushes the rock at the bottom of the hole. The cuttings are carried to the surface by a special fluid called mud. It is a mixture of clay, water and chemicals. The pipe or a string is made of joints or singles. Each joint or single is a hollow section of pipe, 30 feet long. The string is made up of a number of these strings, all joined together. The bit is connected to the bottom of the string. At the top of the string there is a special pipe called the kelly. It isn’t round, it hexagonal. It fits into a hexagonal hole in the rotary table. The rotary table turns the kelly, the kelly turns the string, and the string turns the rotary bit.
Mud is not only used for carrying the cuttings up to the surface. It is also used for keeping the bit cool. The mud is pumped down through the annulus. The mud engineer or mudman is in charge of the mud. For example, he tells the floormen how to mix the mud at the mud tanks.
DRIVES
The only visible part of a flowing well is the Christmas tree, which is the assembly of valves and chokes at the production wellhead. The tree controls the rate of flow to the surface and directs the oil into flow lines. Via these flow lines, the oil is directed into storage tanks or into gathering lines. Some Christmas trees have separate valves bolted together, some have all the valves let into one block of steel (solid block trees) and others have a combination of the two.
The forces that push reservoir fluids upwards to the tree are called drives. These natural production mechanisms are relative to the three sources of potential energy in the reservoir: gas, oil and water. When the well has been opened to the surface, there is a pressure drop in the vicinity of the well bore. This means, in the case of solution-gas drive, that gas which is dissolved in the oil begins to come out of solution and to expand. As the gas does so, it displaces the surrounding oil horizontally into the well. In the case of gas-cap drive, the expansion of the free gas displaces the oil downwards into the well. In water drive, the expansion of the aquifer water sweeps the oil out of the rock pores and upwards into the well.
Примечания:
Christmas tree - фонтанная арматура, елка
drive - вытеснение, режим
gas cap drive - режим газовой шапки
solution-gas drive - режим растворенного газа
STIMULATION
After a well has come on stream, the production rate may not be high enough. A common cause of this is low permeability of the reservoir. To raise the production rate, the well will have to be stimulated. There are many ways of stimulating a well, but the main ones are hydraulic frac-turing and acidization.
Hydraulic fracturing is a method of breaking open cracks and fissures in the pay zone around the borehole. The fracturing fluid, usually a gel, is squeezed to the formation under a pressure which is high enough to break the formation down. When the pressure is released, however, the cracks must be kept open. For this reason, propping agents are carried in the gel and are left behind to hold open the cracks and fissures. The most common propping agents are rounded sand grains, glass beads, and wallnut shells.
Acidization can be used to stimulate reservoir rock which is soluble in acid. By dissolving the formation, the acid opens up and enlarges fissures in the rock around the borehole. In order to stimulate reservoirs consisting of limestone and dolomite, hydrochloric acid is generally used. Hydro-fluoric acid is used to stimulate certain kinds of sandstone reservoirs. It is also used to clean up pore spaces which have been blocked by drilling fluid clay.
Примечания:
hydraulic fracturing - гидроразрыв пласта
propping agent - расклинивающий агент
hydrochloric acid - соляная кислота
hydrofluoric acid - плавиковая кислота
JOBS ON THE RIG
Drilling is one of the jobs where a man has to work his way up. Even if a man has a university or polytechnic education, most oil companies will want him to get rig experience by working on the floor with the rotary crew for a certain period. A boll weevil, even if he is well-educated, can be a highly dangerous person around the rotary table. He may be a danger to himself (by breaking a leg in the mousehole, for example), and he may be a hazard to the other members of the crew. What might happen if he opened the wrong valve or misunderstood an urgent instruction?
On some rigs, the first step up the ladder is the job of a roustabout, who does semi-skilled labour such as scraping rust, hosing down, painting, carrying cans of additives, unloading materials and supplies.
Having worked for a time as a roustabout, a man might be ready for the job of a roughneck. Among a roughneck’s duties are such things as operating the cathead, handling the slips and tongs, assisting in mixing the slush and so on. Like a roustabout, a roughneck may have to be told what to do. In general, though, roughnecks know their job well enough to get on with it for the minimum number of spoken instructions. It’s noisy around the kelly bushing, and events frequently take place too fast for verbal orders to be given. Much of the time, roughnecks are expected to know automatically what must be done.
Between the positions of roughneck and driller, is the job of derrickman. He works from about 60 to 90 feet above the rig floor, near the top of the derrick, where he attaches or detaches the elevators when pipe or casing is run into or pulled out of the hole. The height at which he works depends on the length of the sections of pipe, casing or tubing that have to be handled. They may be in doubles, thribbles and fourbles. The derrick man also cleans, oils, greases, inspects and repairs the pulley blocks and cables which are used to raise and lower sections of pipe and casing. When he isn’t busy on his platform up in the derrick, the derrickman usually has special responsibility for the slush pumps and tanks.
Примечания:
Roustabout - чернорабочий
boll weevil - (зд.) новичок, неумеха
dope - цементный раствор
roughneck - подсобный рабочий
derrickman - верховой