The ways of expressing ‘the absolute singular’

COUNTABLE NOUNS	EXAMPLES	UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
as abstract ideas	The refugees needed shelter. Have we got chicken for the second course?
	peace, love, joy, courage, friendship	the names of abstract notions
	chemistry, architecture, mathematics, linguistic	the names of the branches of professional activity
	water, snow, steel, hair	the names of mass-materials
	foliage, fruit, furniture, machinery	the names of collective inanimate objects

APPENDIX 6

The ways of expressing ‘the absolute plural’

COUNTABLE NOUNS	EXAMPLES	UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
	trousers, scissors, tongs, spectacle supplies, outskirts, clothes, parings; tidings, earnings, contents, politics; police, cattle, poultry measles, rickets, mumps, creeps, hysterics	1. pluralia tantum objects consisting of two halves the nouns rendering the idea of indefinite plurality, both concrete and abstract the nouns denoting some diseases as well as some abnormal states of the body and mind
1. The singular form of the collective nouns “multitude plural”	The family are at home
	sands of the desert; the snows of the Arctic; the waters of the ocean	2. used in the plural form for stylistic marking of nouns to result in expressive transposition. “ descriptive uncountable plural”
2. used either in the singular or in the plural form to show large quantity intensely presented. "repetition plural.”	There were trees and trees all around us. I lit cigarette after cigarette.	the names of mass-materials

APPENDIX 7

THE PECULARITIES OF CASE THEORIES

CASE THEORY	REPRESENTATIVES	DESCRIPTION
POSITIONAL	Ch. Friese, J. C. Nesfield, M. Deutschbein, M. Bryant	Cases are differentiated by the functional positions occupied by the noun in the sentence.
PREPOSITIONAL	J. Curme	Cases are seen as ccombinations of nouns with prepositions in certain object and attributive collocations for instance to+ Noun — the "dative" case of + Noun the "genitive" case.
LIMITED	H. Swift	There are two case forms in English —the possessive or genitive form (the strong member of the opposition) common, or "non-genitive" form as (the weak member of the opposition) The opposition is shown as being effected in full with animate nouns, though a restricted use with inanimate nouns is also taken into account.
POSTPOSITIONAL	O. Espersen	English noun lost the category of case in the course of its historical development. However according to the tradition there is a lingual unit that is named the "genitive case". This unit is formally presented by combination of a noun with the postpositional element -'s

APPENDIX 8

The problem of article determination

Article is a determining unit of specific nature accompanying the noun in communicative collocation. The semantic purpose of the article is to specify the nounal referent. Although there are two kinds of articles, they may provide three meaningful characterisations of the nounal referent by their correlative functioning, namely: one rendered by the definite article, one rendered by the indefinite article, and one rendered by the absence (or non-use) of the article. Let us examine them separately.

The definite article expresses the identification or individualisation of the referent of the noun: the use of this article shows that the object denoted is taken in its concrete, individual quality.

Cf.: But look at the apple-tree!→ But look at this apple-tree!

The indefinite article, refers the object denoted by the noun to a certain class of similar objects; in other words, the indefinite article expresses a classifying generalisation of the nounal referent, or takes it in a relatively general sense. E.g.:

A door opened in the wall. → A door (not a window) opened in the wall.

As for the various uses of nouns without an article, they all should be divided into three types.

First of all the articles are deliberately omitted out of stylistic considerations. We see such uses, for instance, in telegraphic speech, in titles and headlines, in various notices.

Secondly they may be omitted because of a certain language tradition

in various combinations of fixed type, such as prepositional phrases (on fire, at hand, in debt, etc.),

fixed verbal collocations (take place, make use, cast anchor, etc.),

descriptive coordinative groups and repetition groups (man and wife, dog and gun, day by day, etc.), and the like.

However, these cases of traditionally fixed absence of the article are quite similar to the cases of traditionally fixed uses of both indefinite and definite articles (cf.: in a hurry, at a loss, have a look, give a start, etc.; in the main, out of the question, on the look-out, etc.).

Moreover, outside the elliptical constructions and fixed uses, we know a really semantic absence of the article with the noun. It is this semantic absence of the article that stands in immediate meaningful correlation with the definite and indefinite articles as such.

The essential points of the said classification are three in number.

First. The meaningful absence of the article before the countable noun in the singular signifies that the noun is taken in an abstract sense, expressing the most general idea of the object denoted. This meaning, which may be called the meaning of "absolute generalisation", can be demonstrated by inserting in the tested construction a chosen generalising modifier (such as in general, in the abstract, in the broadest sense). Cf.:

Law (in general) begins with the beginning of human society.

Second. The absence of the article before the uncountable noun corresponds to the two kinds of generalisation: both relative and absolute. To decide which of the two meanings is realised in any particular case, the described tests should be carried out alternately. Cf.:

. Coffee (a kind of beverage served at the table: relative generalisation) or tea, please?

Coffee (in general: absolute generalisation) stimulates the function of the heart.

Third. The absence of the article before the countable noun in the plural, likewise, corresponds to both kinds of generalisation, and the exposition of the meaning in each case can be achieved by the same semantic tests. Cf.:

Stars, planets and comets (these kinds of objects: relative generalisation) are different celestial bodies (not terrestrial bodies: relative generalisation).

Wars (in general: absolute generalisation) should be eliminated as means of deciding international disputes.

APPENDIX 9

THE FORMATION OF ENGLISH NOUNS