Industrial Revolution

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What made this kind of revolution in free time possible was an increasingly urban, sophisticated population coupled with the steady progress of industrialization.

The coffee houses became the grounds of some of the greatest thinkers of the age. Though women, minorities, and the lower classes were not exactly welcomed into this new civil discourse.

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One of the beneficial effects of the Industrial Revolution was that reading materials became available to the general public. Consequently, the cost of such material decreased to the point that literature was no longer the privilege of aristocracy and wealthy merchants.

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Literature development

The writers of the Age of Enlightenment wanted to improve the world. But some of them hoped to do this only by teaching. Others openly protested against the social order.

Thus two groups of the Enlighteners could be distinguished:

Improvement by teaching	Improvement by protests
Daniel Defoe (1661-1731) Joseph Addison (1672-1719) Richard Steele (1672-1729) Alexander Pope (1688-1744) Samuel Richardson (1689-1761) Laurence Sterne (1713-1768)	Jonathan Swift (1667-1745) Henry Fielding (1707-1754) Tobias Smollett (1721-1771) Oliver Goldsmith (1728-1774) Richard Sheridan (1751-1816)

DRAMA

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As for drama, this is a particularly barren period: not a single tragedy of any worth was written during the eighteenth century. Restoration drama and its comedy of manners – frequently immoral attitudes. Though there were successful comedy writers.

Some important dramatists of the late 18th century were Oliver Goldsmith (1730-1774) and Richard Sheridan (1751-1816).

Oliver Goldsmith (1728-1774)

Oliver Goldsmith is known for his play "She Stoops to Conquer, or The Mistakes of a Night" (1773)l.

The only but also famous novel by Goldsmith is The Vicar of Wakefield.

Richard Sheridan (1751-1816)

Richard Sheridan is mostly famous for his "The School for Scandal".

Goldsmith and Sheridan continue in English comedy the tradition established by Molière.

In SHE STOOPS TO CONQUER there is an element of farce not quite in keeping with the elevation of high comedy but not unlike the joyous gaiety which laughs all through the IBOURGEOIS GENTILHOMME.

In the SCHOOL FOR SCANDAL we have an English comedy with the solid structure. Three main personages are fond of scandal and can't stop striking a character dead at every word.

This century also ushered in the middle-class or domestic drama, which treated the problems of ordinary people.

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POETRY

At the beginning of the 18th century verse was preferable to prose. By the end of the century prose and verse exchanged their places. In contrast to prose, both poetry and drama take a secondary role in eighteenth-century literature. The Augustan poet was a social being whose private feelings were considered inappropriate material for public confession.

ALEXANDER POPE (1688-1744).

Alexander Pope was arguably the only great poet of Enlightenment England. Not surprisingly, he was a controversial figure.

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From a literary standpoint, Pope was an innovator on several fronts.

• he popularized the heroic couplet, a sophisticated rhyme scheme that suited his subject matter well.

• He took everyday settings and events and made them grandiose and ironical

• He blended formal criticism into his poetry

• In his own day, Pope was possibly most admired for his capable and effective translations of classic literature. He single-handedly elevated translation to an art-form, and demonstrated that a good poetic sensibility was necessary to pull it off with any success.

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Pope’s great masterpiece was The Dunciad («Дунсіада»), a four-part satire on eighteenth century English society.

Unlike most of his Enlightenment brethren, Pope was singularly pessimistic about the future of civil society. Perhaps he foresaw that the tide of rationalism could sweep out just as easily as it had swept in.

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PROSE

Before novel

• Essays

• Journalism

• Novel

The abolition of the Licensing Act in 1694 marked the end of censorship and heralded a new period of freedom for what amounted to the beginnings of the modern press.

1702 - the first daily newspaper was established.

The writers of the Enlightenment fought for freedom. Most of them wrote political pamphlets and essays, but the best came from the pen of Daniel Defoe and Jonathan Swift.

The subjects dealt with current affairs, politics, literature, fashion, gossip, entertainment and contemporary manners, fads and morals. It was a prose frequently characterized by a refined simplicity, conversational tone, classical taste and social order –instruction, description and persuasion.

In the eighteenth century journalism set out more to enlighten than entertain its readers.

One of the most important early undertakings of English journalism was a periodical called The Tatler (started in 1709).

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NOVEL

A novel may be defined as a work of narrative fiction, usually in prose. As a distinct literary form, the novel came into being in Britain in the eighteenth century.

These are some of the factors which are said to have influenced its development:

1) Journalism: Early journalism aimed to record the facts of daily living, paying attention to detail, easy readability and immediacy of interest.

2) Parallel art forms: Biography, diaries and personal memoirs were very fashionable in the eighteenth century.

3) Letter writing: With improved communications, letter writing was cultivated as an art.

4) Travel literature: With the steady growth of overseas trade, books such as New Voyage Round the World (1697), by the navigator and explorer Captain William Dampier, were widely read. They were written in a lively, straightforward style and contained precise scientific observation.

5) The Restoration Comedies of Manners: Plots contained love intrigues, witty sexual suggestiveness and sparkling conversational repartee. They were noted for their humour, their realism and their satire of the social surface of life.

6) The picaresque stories: In English fiction the term 'picaresque' refers to a series of episodes where the often daring hero is forced to seek his fortune outside of stable society.

7) The mock romance of knights (such as Don Quixote de la Mancha, 1605-1615, by the Spanish writer Miguel de Cervantes) where, in comic vein, wandering knights try to put injustices to right.

8) Puritanism: This had always encouraged:

• a practical attitude to world affairs.

• a belief in the individual conscience. Puritans followed the 'inner light', the voice of God.

• a spirit of self-enquiry.

• a love of truth.

9) The rise of the middle class: As a result:

• education was available to more people and was less exclusively 'classical';

• more leisure time available, particularly for women;

• greater individualism - a belief that one must earn a living by one's own efforts;

• a growing desire to be opened up to new worlds;

10) Scientific philosophy: The optimistic philosophy of “natural philosopher” such as John Locke - belief in reason at the expense of the imagination.

11) Religious tolerance. After the Restoration, moderation and religious tolerance replaced passionate religious conviction, and attention was more focused on the social destiny of the individual and the facts and circumstances of the social world.

The eighteenth century novel features

• Deals with a world of actual human experience. The novel took individual experience as its most important criterion, and the plots that had formed the backbone of English literature for many centuries – plots taken from history, legend, mythology and previous literature – were largely abandoned by the new novelists. Readers were presented with original plots acted out by often highly individual characters in singular circumstances.

• The hero was a representative of the middle class. Earlier the common people were shown only as comical personages.

• Greater attention was paid to the physical background or setting. Specific references to names of streets or towns, together with more detailed descriptions of the objects.

• A general movement away from rhetorical and figurative language towards a more descriptive form of language.

Daniel Defoe (1661-1731)

In Defoe's early life he experienced first-hand some of the most unusual occurrences in English history: in 1665, 70,000 were killed by the Great Plague of London. The Great Fire of London (1666) hit Defoe's neighbourhood hard, leaving only his and two other homes standing in the area. In 1667, when Defoe was probably about seven years old, a Dutch fleet sailed up the Medway via the River Thames and attacked Chatham. By the time he was about ten years old, Defoe's mother Annie had died. His parents were Presbyterian dissenters; he was educated in a dissenting academy.

Daniel Defoe was a prolific writer (over 370 known publications) who could–and would–turn his hand to almost any topic; he has been called one of the greatest journalists and the father of journalism. To many of his contemporaries, he was a man who sold his pen to the political party in office and so lacking integrity. He was not taken seriously by literary men, though his skill at writing was acknowledged.

Alexander Pope said of him, "The first part of Robinson Crusoe is very good–De Foe wrote a vast many things; and none bad, though none excellent, except this" (1742).

He was an outsider, being a Dissenter or Puritan, the son of a butcher, and a suspected government spy (this suspicion was confirmed in the nineteenth century).

Jonathan Swift regarded him with contempt, "One of these Authors (the Fellow that was pilloried, I have forgot his Name) is indeed so grave, sententious, dogmatical a Rogue, that there is no enduring him." At least part of Swift's attitude is snobbery; Defoe was not a gentleman born or raised though he aspired to be one and changed his name from Foe to Defoe and bought a coach with his coat of arms on its door.

Creative works

• His most successful poem, The True-Born Englishman (Чистокровный англичанин), defended the king against the perceived xenophobia (ненависть к иностранцам) of his enemies, satirising the English claim to racial purity.

• The Shortest-Way with the Dissenters; Or, Proposals for the Establishment of the Church (Кратчайший способ расправы с диссидентами) - purporting to argue for their extermination. In it he ruthlessly satirised both the High church Tories and those Dissenters who hypocritically practised so-called "occasional conformity". For this pamphlet he was fired, three times pilloried, and imprisoned.

• According to legend, the publication of his poem Hymn to the Pillory caused his audience at the pillory to throw flowers instead of the customary harmful and noxious objects and to drink to his health.

• Alongside with serious work – short brochures for easy reading about burglars or ghosts.

• Founder of journalistics: edits and publishes A Review of the Affairs of France (Обозрение французских дел) alone. Three times a week. 1705-1713.

• Also in 1722, Defoe wrote Moll Flanders, first-person picaresque novel of the fall and eventual redemption of a lone woman in 17th century England. The titular heroine appears as a whore, bigamist and thief, lives in London, commits adultery and incest, yet manages to retain the reader's sympathy.

• Being an old man (58), buried with knowledge and experience he started writing “Life and Strange Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe”

ROBINSON CRUSOE

The full title of that novel sounds like that: "The Life and Strange Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, оf York, Mariner Who lived Eight and Twenty years, all alone in an uninhabited Island on the Coast of the Great River of Oroonaque, Having been Cast on Shord by Shipwreck, wherein all the Men perished but himself With an account how he was at last strangely deliver'd by Pirates, written by Himself."

The story is based on a real event. Alexander Selkirk, a sailor who quarrelled with his captain, was put on the island near Chile, and lived there alone for four years.

Plot and ideas

About a man wrecked on a desert island for twenty years (Defoe identified with the hero but had never visited a desert island himself). A description of the industrious, sensible, methodical way in which he struggles to build up a life for himself. Sees people in terms of their economic, rather than their emotional or moral virtues.

Describes people according to what John Locke called their 'primary qualities' (those which can be measured objectively, such as size, weight, number and shape) rather than their 'secondary qualities' (such as smell, colour and beauty which depend more on our subjective perceptions).

Regards God as the Senior Partner in his commercial enterprises, a Power that provides, though a comfort when ill. Written as a personal memoir in a series of episodes. Plain style.

The charm of the novel lies in Robinson as a person."Robinson Crusoe" praises human labour which saves him from despair. Defoe shows the development of Robinson Crusoe.

Robinson Crusoe doesn't lose his courage. His motto is: "Never say die". Sometimes panic overtakes him, but never for long. He always hopes for the best. Crusoe keeps his diary as long as he has something to write with.

Defoe's Crusoe, like Defoe himself, is typically bourgeois. He is very practical and straightforward. He is extremely interested only in himself and his property. He wants to be the master of the island. Robinson Crusoe makes Friday his servant, because slavery seems natural to Defoe. "Master" is the first word he teaches Friday to pronounce.

Friday is the other main character of the book. Author sympathizes with him, appreciates his willingness to help, his obedience to his "master". Both characters are very religious. Nevertheless Robinson gives Friday the hardest part of job – this is the only type of relations between a white man and a black man. Anyway Defoe is progressive; Robinson differs from cruel colonizers of America.

Defoe proves the fact that Man can live by himself even in such a situation, on an uninhabited island. As a writer of the Age of Enlightenment, he teaches people how to live and what to do in order to live better. According to Defoe, man can live by himself comfortably and make all the things he needs with no other hands to assist him. This individualism is characteristic of Defoe.

Practical sense over religious superstitions or philosophy. Находит колосья, благодарит Бога, но вспоминает, что сам же принес зерна в карманах. Находит след, опасается дьявола, но тут же осознает, что это дикари. Находит кучу золота, сетует на ее бесполезность, но не забывает прихватить с собой.

Plain style. Defoe: one should tell the story in such a way that from the crowd of 500 people of different abilities, intelligence and social layer, everybody could understand.

The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe (1719) and his Serious Reflections of Robinson Crusoe

Jonathan Swift (1667-1745)

Jonathan Swift was one of the famous English writers of the Age of Enlightenment. Moreover, he was a bitter satirist of the beginning of the 18th century.

Jonathan is still loved and valued in Ireland as one of the first and greatest fighters for Irish freedom. In 1720 he published his powerful pamphlet "A Proposal for the Universal Use of Irish Manufacture' which proclaimed an economic independence for Ireland. Swift became the hero of Dublin, but the police were searching for the author of the rebellious pamphlet. The police didn't know who the author was, but the population knew the author quite well.

A Tale of a Tub was the first major work written by Jonathan Swift. It is arguably his most difficult satire, and perhaps his most masterly. The Tale is a prose parody which is divided into sections of "digression" and a "tale" of three brothers, each representing one of the main branches of western Christianity.

The "tale" presents a consistent satire of religious excess, while the digressions are a series of parodies of contemporary writing in literature, politics, theology, Biblical matters, and medicine. The overarching parody is of enthusiasm, pride, and credulity. At the time it was written, politics and religion were still linked very closely in England, and the religious and political aspects of the satire can often hardly be separated.

The "tale," or narrative, is an allegory that concerns the adventures of three brothers, Peter, Martin, and Jack, as they attempt to make their way in the world. Each of the brothers represents one of the primary branches of Christianity in the West. This part of the book is a pun on "tub," which Alexander Pope says was a common term for a Dissenter's pulpit (трибуна проповедника).

Peter (Saint Peter) stands in for the Roman Catholic Church. Католицизм, папство

Jack (John Calvin) represents the various Dissenting Protestant churches such as Baptists, Presbyterians, Quakers, Congregationalists, or Anabaptists. Пуританство, ханжество и лицемерие

Martin (Martin Luther) the Church of England. Англиканство

The brothers have inherited three wonderfully satisfactory coats (representing religious practice) by their father (representing God), and they have his will (representing the Bible) to guide them. Although the will says that the brothers are forbidden from making any changes to their coats, they do nearly nothing but alter their coats from the start. «Жить дружно и не портить простого кафтана никакими украшениями».

Drapier's Letters was a series of pamphlets against the monopoly granted by the English government to William Wood to provide the Irish with copper coinage. It was widely believed that Wood would need to flood Ireland with debased coinage in order make a profit. In these "letters" Swift posed as a shop-keeper—a draper—in order to criticize the plan.

Jonathan's masterpiece, "Gulliver's Travels", appeared in 1726.

“Gulliver's Travels”

Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World, in Four Parts, by Lemuel Gulliver, first a surgeon, and then a captain of several ships, better known as – “Gulliiver’s Travels”

Gulliver's Travels, first published in 1726, has had a strange fate: one of the harshest and cruelest satires ever written against the follies of mankind, it is now thought of as a children's book. The reason for this are easy enough to see. A story full of fantastic images, giants, tiny people, floating islands and talking horses, it can almost seem like a fable. But adult readers have had no doubts about the true nature of Gulliver's Travels.

John Gay said in a 1726 letter to Swift that "it is universally read, from the cabinet council to the nursery".

A fable (a story that teaches a lesson, with people who have never actually existed or animals who be

have like human beings).

A series of episodes about the travels of a surgeon on a merchant ship.

Part I: A Voyage to Lilliput Shipwrecked on Lilliput, where the inhabitants are six inches high making their self-importance seem ridiculous;

Liliput is a word created by Swift.

Part II: A Voyage to Brobdingnag

shipwrecked on Brobdingnag, where the inhabitants are as tall as church steeples and Gulliver, an eighteenth-century man who believes in the power of reason, is made to feel petty;

Part III: A Voyage to Laputa, Balnibarbi, Luggnagg, Glubbdubdrib, and Japan

shipwrecked on the flying island of Laputa, where the inhabitants are absorbed in ridiculous forms of scientific enquiry and philosophical speculation;

Part IV: A Voyage to the Country of the Houyhnhnms shipwrecked on the island of the Houyhnhnms, where horses endowed with reason contrast with the dirty and brutal Yahoos, beasts in human shape. The book appeals to all ages but the darker satire is usually ignored by the young. Swift believed that man would destroy himself without divine aid. Precise, sober style used for ironic effect.

Broadly, the book has three themes:

• a satirical view of the state of European government, and of petty differences between religions.

• an inquiry into whether men are inherently corrupt or whether they become corrupted.

• a restatement of the older "ancients versus moderns" controversy previously addressed by Swift in The Battle of the Books.

In terms of storytelling and construction the parts follow a pattern:

• The causes of Gulliver's misadventures become more malignant as time goes on - he is first shipwrecked, then abandoned, then attacked by strangers, then attacked by his own crew.

• Gulliver's attitude hardens as the book progresses — he is genuinely surprised by the viciousness and politicking of the Lilliputians but finds the behaviour of the Yahoos in the fourth part reflective of the behaviour of people.

• Each part is the reverse of the preceding part — Gulliver is big/small//ignorant, the countries are complex/simple/scientific/natural, forms of Government are worse/better/worse/better than England's.

• Gulliver's view between parts contrasts with its other coinciding part — Gulliver sees the tiny Lilliputians as being vicious and unscrupulous, and then the king of Brobdingnag sees Europe in exactly the same light. Gulliver sees the Laputians as unreasonable, and Gulliver's Houyhnhnm master sees humanity as equally so.

• No form of government is ideal — the simplistic Brobdingnagians enjoy public executions and have streets infested with beggars, the honest and upright Houyhnhnms who have no word for lying are happy to suppress the true nature of Gulliver as a Yahoo and are equally unconcerned about his reaction to being expelled.

• Specific individuals may be good even where the race is bad — Gulliver finds a friend in each of his travels and, despite Gulliver's rejection and horror toward all Yahoos, is treated very well by the Portuguese captain, Don Pedro, who returns him to England at the novel's end.

Samuel Richardson (1689-1761)

Together with that of Defoe, Richardson's name is most commonly mentioned when referring to the founders of the eighteenth-century novel. Despite significant differences in method and subject matter, both authors played an important part in the creation and development of the novel.

During his relatively brief career as a novelist, Richardson wrote three lengthy novels which won considerable success and were later imitated all over Europe: Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740-1), Clarissa Harlowe (1747-8), and Sir Charles Grandison (1753-4).

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strong element of psychological analysis, which had been lacking in most other prose fiction. We are taken inside the minds of Richardson's characters and are invited to share their innermost thoughts and feelings.

In contrast to the majority of previous fiction, there is also very much a sense of individual development within the confines of the story: characters are dynamic and the reader is almost a privileged witness of their sharply detailed evolution.

The three novels were written in the form of letters exchanged between the main characters. This 'epistolary technique' was largely a reflection of the fashion for letter writing of the period. The epistolary form allows differing individual viewpoints of the same events to be fully explored within the text without any loss of authenticity (and in this sense Richardson anticipated the workings of the modern psychological novel with its multiple viewpoints). Indeed, the story takes on a more complete dimension in its multi-layered verisimilitude.

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Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded - «Памела, или Вознагражденная добродетель»

It tells the story of a beautiful but poor 15-year old servant-maid named Pamela Andrews whose master, Mr. B, a nobleman, makes unwanted advances towards her after the death of his mother whose maid she was since the age of 12. Mr. B is infatuated with her, first by her looks and then her innocence and intelligence but his high rank hinders him from proposing marriage. He abducts her and locks her up in one of his estates and attempts to seduce and rape her. She rejects him continually refusing to be his mistress though she begins to realize that she is falling in love with him. He intercepts and reads her letters to her parents and becomes even more enamored by her innocence and intelligence and her continuous attempts to escape. Her virtue is eventually rewarded when he shows his sincerity by proposing an equitable marriage to her as his legal wife. In the second part of the novel, Pamela attempts to accommodate herself to upper-class society and to build a successful relationship with him. The story was a bestseller of its time and was very widely read, even though it also received criticism for its perceived licentiousness.

Clarissa (Lovelace)

The History of Sir Charles Grandison (Бесподобные Грандисон, который нам наводит сон)

Henry Fielding (1707-1754)

Almost by accident, in angered response to the success of Richardson's novel Pamela, Fielding took to writing novels with An Apology for the Life of Mrs Shamela Andrews (1741).

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Fielding was the first English novelist to approach the novel form systematically: the reader is never under the illusion that what he is reading is anything other than a work of art. Fielding's narrative persona is a kind of literary guide and travelling companion who takes us behind the scenes to explain and elucidate upon what happens in the narrative, consciously dealing with the problems of the literary form in which the action is cast. The narrator's tone is conversational, amicable, and frequently ironic, and sets up a gentlemanly intimacy with the reader.

Most famous works:

• The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling (Найденыш)

• Amelia

His novels certainly contain a wide variety of characters: they are drawn from all classes, and his extensive social panorama undoubtedly constitutes a more genuine and wide-ranging picture of eighteenth-century England than that of his contemporaries.

The Tragedy of Tragedies; or, The Life and Death of Tom Thumb the Great

Tom Jones (1749)

Disliked what he saw as Richardson's self-satisfaction and hypocrisy.

The book is an entertaining 'comic epic' (a panoramic narrative of manners and behaviour), containing mock-heroism and many classical allusions.

Written as a series of events rather than around a plot.

Many direct 'intrusions' by the author.

Characters: social types presented as characteristic human types, with basic human motives. In contrast with Richardson, they are seen externally.

Plot

About the life of a foundling, discovered by an enlightened landowner, Squire Allworthy. Tom is a generous, handsome young man with an inclination to fleshly lusts. Falls in love with Squire Western's daughter, Sophie, intended for the treacherous Blifil. Disgraced by his enemies and his own behaviour, Tom is disowned by Squire Allworthy. After a series of adventures on the road, he is eventually united with Sophie and they are married.

Laurence Sterne (1713-1768)

The son of an impoverished army officer. Anglican priest.

He is best known for his novels The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman, and A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy; but he also published many sermons, wrote memoirs, and was involved in local politics.

The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (1760-1767)

This work of eccentric genius brought Sterne fame and fortune, both in England and in France. Tristram Shandy anticipated in many ways the experiments in fiction undertaken by many modern and contemporary writers. It remains the most 'modern', although by no means the most accessible, of eighteenth-century novels.

This novel – or 'anti-novel' as some critics prefer to call it – is divided up into nine volumes, which were written over a seven year period beginning.

It is narrated in the first person singular by Tristram Shandy himself. Yet the reader soon realizes that there is very little conventional detail regarding the life of Tristram. Indeed, the narrator does not get round to describing his actual birth until the third volume, and Tristram disappears to all intents and purposes three volumes later at the age of five, only to appear later in the novel as a mature gentleman on tour in France.

Tristram moves freely from present to past and back again in a process which is never ending.

Tristram's narrative is itself a never-ending process of associations. His narrative provides the most graphic illustration of Sterne's convictions regarding the disordered workings of the human mind, and at the same time is a reminder of the difficulties associated with understanding and – perhaps more importantly in the case of the novelist – seeking to represent the workings of inner consciousness.

Style

Chapters varying in length from single sentences to paragraphs are interspersed with whole sections written in French and Latin.

Some pages are marbled, some completely blacked out and others left blank: in the case of the latter, the reader is actually asked by Tristram to fill in the page with his own personal vision of what Widow Wadman looks like – an early example of the reader being required to collaborate actively in the construction of the text.

Conventional punctuation blends with an elaborate use of asterisks* and dashes (-), while the speech marks usually adopted by authors to report dialogue are totally abandoned. Where the word is considered inadequate, Tristram intervenes with hand drawings.

A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy

Stern fell in love with the much younger Eliza Draper, an affair which eventually led to separation from his estranged wife. His only other noteworthy publication, A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy, was based on his lengthy tour of Italy and France. It was published three days before his death from pleurisy in 1768.

The novel can be seen as an epilogue to the possibly unfinished work The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman.

Lecture 5

The Nineteenth-Century Literature. Romanticism.

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Towards the end of the eighteenth century, there came into circulation new notions of