Twentieth-century english poetry

The history of English poetry in the twentieth century tends to support the frequent remark that poetry is essentially a private art form. Certainly, poets are often influenced by other poets, and those who live through the same social and political events may well share a common outlook on them, but in the end each poet works as a private and separate person who makes his or her own world from his or her own deep concerns. Necessarily, therefore, the story of English poetry in the twentieth century is very much a story of individual figures.

The great figure in the poetry of the early part of the century was W. B. Yeats.

William butler yeats

1865 – 1939

Irish poet and playwright. His work is considered to be the most important in the revival of Irish literature, including poetry, drama, criticism, essays, journalism, novels and occult writings, and fruitfully engaged with Ireland's political independence.

His early poems sprang from late 19th century Aestheticism and were languorous and mannered. But they were distinguished from other verse of the period by their use of Irish mythology, and this sense of belonging to the culture of his native land remained with him and was always a strength. His early works included The Wanderings of Oisin and Other Poems (1889), The Countess Kathleen and Other Legends and Lyrics (1892).

Two tendencies can be discovered in Yeats. The first was to elaborate a private mythology based on Irish myths, spiritualism, classical lore, astrology and Eastern philosophy. The second was a movement toward a naked direct utterance, sinewy yet musical, with the simplicity of folk poetry. He has come down to the history of English literature as a master of elaborate language and style, an ardent companion of Irish folklore and the prophet of the rebirth of Irish art, theatre, literature.

His work covered fifty years: his first poems were published in 1889 and his last were written in 1939. He was Irish, and when he began writing an important concern of his poetry was to show and honour the nature and character of Ireland and the Irish people, by writing about the traditions and history of the Irish nation. In his later work his themes became more universal; his main subject was the way in which the world and the people in it are divided, and how they can be made whole. In his poem An Irish Airman Foresees His Death, the airman knows he will die in a war (the First World War) which does not affect his own country and will not make any difference to the lives of the people he cares about in his village in Ireland, so that he does not fight because the law or a sense of duty tell him he must, but rather because of the pleasure of the danger and excitement of fighting in the air:

I balanced all, brought all to mind;

The years to come seemed waste of breath,

A waste of breath the years behind,

In balance with this life, this death.

In one of Yeats's last poems he remembers the themes and stories of his early poems and plays in verse, and their grand heroic characters, and recognizes that he was attracted by their appearance and not by the reality that lay behind them:

Players and painted stage took all my love,

And not those things that they were emblems of.

His later poetry uses plainer language, and is often more honest – and more painful in its description of human nature – than the poetry he wrote as a young man.

Imagism was another British and American poetic movement founded in England in 1912, Led by Ezra Pound, an American, it reacted against the Romanticism, its principles being the following to use common speech, to try new musical rhythms and create new moods, to have freedom of subject, to be economical in the use of language.

Imagism, the doctrine and poetic practice of a small but influential group of American and British poets calling themselves Imagists or Imagisles between 1912 and 1917. Led at first by Ezra Pound, the group rejected most 19th-century poetry as cloudy verbiage, and aimed instead at a new clarity and exactness in the short lyric poem. Influenced by the Japanese haiku and partly by ancient Greek lyrics, the Imagists cultivated concision and directness, building their short poems around single images; they also preferred looser cadences to traditional regular rhythms. Apart from Pound and Lowell, the group also included Richard Aldington. 'H.D.' (Hilda Doolittle), D. H. Lawrence, Ford Madox Ford, and William Carlos Williams.

Siegfried Sassoon fought in France, and much of his anger is directed against the pointlessness of war, and against the senior officers who do not seem to realize the death and destruction – which could often have been avoided – that their orders will cause to the men they command. He also hated the patriotic satisfaction of the people at home who believed the heroic stories that the government told them about the war and did not want to know about the misery and suffering of the men who fought.

You can't believe that British troops 'retire',

When hell's last horror breaks them, and they run,

Trampling the terrible corpses - blind with blood.

O German mother dreaming by the fire

While you are making socks to send your son

His face is trodden deeper in the mud.

Wilfred Owen is possibly the best-known English poet of the First World War. He shares with Sassoon the wish to describe what the war was really like to the people at home in order for them to understand its horror and the suffering of the soldiers. He refuses to accept the romantic patriotism of Rupert Brooke – the war, he points out, is fought by real men who bleed and die, not by heroes who are more than human and he describes the idea that it is noble and right to die for one's country as 'the old lie'. His poems show very powerfully the discomfort, danger and pain of the soldiers, and the permanent damage, which the war did to their minds and happiness.

T(homas) S(terns) Eliot (1888 – 1965) an influential literary critic, essayist, poet and playwright, in 1917 – 19 was assistant editor of The Egoist, the magazine which advocated Imagism. He himself began to publish poetry with the help and encouragement of Ezra Pound and his early poems (Prelude, 1915) were in many ways like montages of cinematic images. His major works, in particular The Waste Land (1922) and the Four Quarters (1935 – 42), gave new poetic expression to the modern consciousness. After the initial controversy it provoked by its innovatory technique and its apparently pessimistic tone, his poem The Waste Land came to be accepted as a central text of Modernism.

The Waste Land (published in 1922) is a long, highly complex poem, which brings together a group of characters as different in kind, and time as a modern typist and a blind priest of ancient Greece who can see the future. It brings together the ancient beliefs in the circularity of the natural world's movement through life and death to new life, with the Christian belief in spiritual life after physical death. Much of the picture of human unhappiness in the poem comes from the fact that the characters cannot understand the meaning of their own experiences. Eliot sees the root of the modern world's unhappiness and confusion as the fact that people today cannot bring together the different areas of their experience - cultural, sexual and religious as well as the everyday physical world - to make a complete and healthy whole. Since Eliot's aim is to bring together a great variety of human voices and experiences, the different parts of his poem use many different styles -here, for example, is the everyday voice of one woman advising an other to get herself a set of false teeth before her husband comes home from the war:

Now Albert's coming back, make yourself a bit smart.

He'll want to know what you done with that money he gave you

To get yourself some teeth. He did, I was there:

You have them all out, Lill, and get a nice set,

He said, I swear I can't bear to look at you.

TWENTIETH-CENTURY ENGLISH DRAMA

In the work of many twentieth-century English dramatists it is possible to see not only the products of the individual writer's ideas and experience, but also several general tendencies. This does not mean that the writers are members of a group, but that they share enough beliefs and concerns for their work to have several important things in common.

One of these loose groupings relates to the attempt to show on stage some parts of the daily lives of ordinary people in a realistic way that often contains social and political criticism. This type of play has a history at least as old as the century: the plays of JOHN galsworthy, for example, which share the forms of the traditional well-made play, combine a description of social and political evils with great sympathy for the people who hopelessly and helplessly suffer them. In Strife (1909) he shows the progress of a strike caused by both sides' refusal to change their demands, which is settled on exactly the same terms as were suggested at the beginning but which has caused huge suffering and hardship to the strikers' families. In Justice (1910) he shows the fate of a man who in a despairing attempt to escape from the miseries of his life writes a false signature on a cheque and has the rest of his life ruined by the 'justice' of those in power; at last, in despair, he kills himself.

The work of sean o'casey, like Galsworthy's, shows concern for innocent victims although the events that shape the lives of O'Casey's characters are more clearly political. O'Casey was an Irishman, and his best-known plays are set in the time of great events in Ireland earlier this century, but the events are always seen from the point of view of the ordinary people.

The Shadow of a Gunman (1923) is set at the time of the Irish War of Independence, but events are shown as they affect the lives of the ordinary people, who suffer most from it. The play is written with humour as well as great sympathy for their sufferings.

Juno and the Paycock (1924) is set in the Irish Civil War, but the chief interest is in the main characters: Juno, a Dublin housewife, is trying to hold her family together against the forces that are trying to destroy it (lack of money, a weak drunken husband, a daughter who is deserted by the father of her child, and a son already wounded who is taken away at the end of the play to be shot as a spy). The Plough and the Stars (1926) deals with the Irish rising against the British in 1916. For O'Casey, it is always the women who suffer most from the realities of war while the men talk and dream and try to be heroes.

Another Irish writer, John Millington SYNGE, was also concerned with describing the lives of ordinary people as they really were, but the group of people he chose to write about was a special one – the people of the Aran Islands, off the west coast of Ireland, which Synge visited often.

His best-known play, The Playboy of the Western World (1907) caused fighting in the theatre when it was first performed in Dublin. The people of a small village admire a young stranger when he tells how he killed his cruel father, but turn against him when his father comes in search of him (saying that his son's blow only made him faint). It shows the moment when a son will no longer accept his father's power over him, and does so with a great delight in language and humour that gives a lively picture of the life of the people it describes.

Angry Young Men

Angry Young Men are  various British novelists and playwrights who emerged in the 1950s and expressed scorn and disaffection with the established sociopolitical order of their country. Their impatience and resentment were especially aroused by what they perceived as the hypocrisy and mediocrity of the upper and middle classes.

The Angry Young Men were a new breed of intellectuals who were mostly of working class or of lower middle-class origin. Some had been educated at the postwar red-brick universities at the state’s expense, though a few were from Oxford. They shared an outspoken irreverence for the British class system, its traditional network of pedigreed families, and the elitist Oxford and Cambridge universities. They showed an equally uninhibited disdain for the drabness of the postwar welfare state, and their writings frequently expressed raw anger and frustration as the postwar reforms failed to meet exalted aspirations for genuine change.

The trend that was evident in John Wain’s novel Hurry on Down (1953) and in Lucky Jim (1954) by Kingsley Amis was crystallized in 1956 in the play Look Back in Anger, which became the representative work of the movement. When the Royal Court Theatre’s press agent described the play’s 26-year-old author John Osborne as an “angry young man,” the name was extended to all his contemporaries who expressed rage at the persistence of class distinctions, pride in their lower-class mannerisms, and dislike for anything highbrow or “phoney.” When Sir Laurence Olivier played the leading role in Osborne’s second play, The Entertainer (1957), the Angry Young Men were acknowledged as the dominant literary force of the decade.

Their novels and plays typically feature a rootless, lower-middle or working-class male protagonist who views society with scorn and sardonic humour and may have conflicts with authority but who is nevertheless preoccupied with the quest for upward mobility.

Among the other writers embraced in the term are the novelists John Braine (Room at the Top, 1957) and Alan Sillitoe (Saturday Night and Sunday Morning, 1958) and the playwrights Bernard Kops (The Hamlet of Stepney Green, 1956) and Arnold Wesker (Chicken Soup with Barley, 1958). Like that of the Beat movement in the United States, the impetus of the movement was exhausted in the early 1960s.

«Злые молодые люди» - этот термин впервые был использован в рецензии на пьесу Джона Осборна «Оглянись во гневе» (1956) и распространился на всю группу английских прозаиков и драматургов, поднимавших в своём творчестве схожие темы в этот же период. Считается, что термин восходит к заголовку автобиографии Лесли Пола «Рассерженный молодой человек» (англ. Angry young man), опубликованной в 1951 году.

Основной темой творчества «сердитых молодых людей» был протест героя — как правило, из рабочего или среднего класса — против окружающей его действительности 1950-х годов в Великобритании.

Kitchen sink realism (or kitchen sink drama) is a term coined to describe a British cultural movement which developed in the late 1950s and early 1960s in theatre, art, novels, film and television plays, whose 'heroes' usually could be described as angry young men. It used a style of social realism which often depicted the domestic situations of working class Britons living in rented accommodation and spending their off-hours in grimy pubs to explore social issues and political controversies.