Venerable Bede

A highly-educated monk from Northumbria the Venerable Bede (673 – 735 wrote in 731 the first “Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation”a church history of the English people It was written in Latin and it contained valuable information about English history, tales and legends. Bede sets out, not just to tell the story of the English, but to advance his views on politics and religion.

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Caedmon

Yorkshire dialect is presented by the poems of Caedmon who lived in the late 7^th c.. He was the first representative of Christian religious poetry.

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His story is known from Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People, which tells how Caedmon, an illiterate shepherd, retired from company one night and was asleep. He had a vision of a stranger commanding him to sing of “the beginning of things,” and Caedmon found himself uttering “verses which he had never heard.” When Caedmon awoke he was conducted by his master to the monastery at Whitby. Caedmon became an inmate of the monastery. All that he heard he reproduced in his poetry.

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His poetry was on sacred themes, and its aim was to turn men from sin to salvation. His only survived work is “Hymn”, a nine-line poem that praises God.

Cynewulf

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The leading Northumbrian poet was Cynewulf. He almost certainly wrote four poems “Juliana”, “The Fates of Apostles”, “Christ”, “Elene”.

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We know nothing else concerning Cynewulf with any degree of certainty. We infer from the nature of his poetry that he was of a deeply religious nature; he was a good Latin scholar, for some of his work is based upon Latin originals.

BEOWULF

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The Old English poetry which has received the most attention deals with the Germanic heroic past. The longest and the most important is the first English epic narrative poem Beowulf.

It deals with events of the early 6th century and was probably composed c. 700–750.

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The author is unknown so it should be considered a collective work rather than the work of a single poet. This is because DICTATE

authorship was not an issue in this period: these epic poems were thought to represent the common core of a people.

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Plot

The main protagonist is Beowulf, a hero of the Geats (гаути). He comes to the aid of Hrothgar, the king of the Danes, whose great hall, Heorot, is plagued by the monster Grendel. Beowulf kills Grendel with his bare hands – he tears off his hand.

Later Grendel's mother comes to revenge. Beowulf must go down to the sea bottom to defeat her with a magical sword.

Later Beowulf is himself king of the Geats, and finds his realm terrorized by a dragon whose treasure had been stolen from his hoard. He attacks the dragon with the help of his servants, but they do not succeed. Beowulf decides to follow the dragon into its lair, at Earnanæs, but only his young relative Wiglaf dares join him. Beowulf finally slays the dragon, but is mortally wounded. He is buried by the sea, honoured and lamented.

Peculiarities of Beowulf epos

• Literature for medieval people

Starting to read "Beowulf", we must forget all the ideas of what we are accustomed to call literature.

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Nowadays we clearly understand that the author describes something unreal and invented by him for the aesthetic pleasure of the audiences. But for people of Middle Ages literature did not mean a fascinating fiction designed to entertain the audience.

• Much of Beowulf is devoted to articulating and illustrating the Germanic heroic code, which values strength, courage, and loyalty in warriors; hospitality, generosity, and political skill in kings; ceremoniousness in women; and good reputation in all people.

• Fairy-tale motives and features of epic poem

While reading Beowulf we recognize the fable of fairy-tale – hero overcomes three trials, each of them is more difficult than the preceeding one. But in the epic poem we do not have happy end – everything ends with funerals. Beowulf’s funeral is emotionally described. It is important to mention that sorrowful events described in Beowulf are much more colourful than happy ones.

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The main difference is that epic poem is narration about achieving immortality. Hero achieves immortality after his faithful death in heroic battles. Hero must accept his death voluntarily and courageously. Death during the battle is hero’s fate. Fame is his immortal life.

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• Beowulf belongs metrically, stylistically, and thematically to the Germanic heroic tradition but shows a distinct Christian influence. Christian and Pagan worldview are interlaced in the poem.

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It can be illustrated by the word widely used throughout the poem: meotod. It is translated to English as God and to Russian as fate. Fate is impossible in Cristian Universe but was used by Anglo-Saxons before Christianity, and God. Also heroic fame in the battles is alien to Christianity. But anyway we can see the Christian layer in the poem. Grendel is called Kain’s descendant – Kain was a person who brought death to this world.

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Poetic features

• Rhythm reached by alliteration.

• kenning is a descriptive, poetical expression used instead of a simple name for a person or thing.

Beowulf is hardly ever called by his actual name. Instead there are many kennings referring to him, such as: "Prince of the Weders", "The Geatish hero", and "The Lord of the Seamen".

There are also specific kennings used to name things.

hildelеoma and beadolеoma (the beam of battle – луч сражений) is a kenning for «sword”

swanrad and hronrad (road of swans or whales) – is the “sea”

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Kennigs were used not only as stylistic devices but also as definitions for taboo words.

Bear is a magical and totemic ancestor; his name cannot be mentioned. Beowulf is kenning used instead of this word. So, Beowulf is not only a hero but half-God, the ancestor, the saver of his people.

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• Exaggeration is a representation of something in an excessive manner. Another device to make Beowulf a more entertaining, and dramatic poem.

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For example, even though this story is a fantasy, it is hard to believe that the character of Beowulf would be able to kill a monster like Grendel with his bare hands.

Exaggerating Beowulf's bravery makes the story more exciting,

"Over all the world, or between the seas,

Or under the heaven, no hero was greater."

In the following lines exaggerations are made concerning the size and weight of the monster's head.

"The head of Grendel, with heavy toil;

Four of the stoutest, with all their strength,

Could hardly carry on swaying spear

Grendel's head to the gold-decked hall"

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• Epic formulas are widely spread in Anglo-Saxon poetry.

Conclusion

The poem is rather long, it contains 3000 lines. “Beowulf” has achieved national epic status, on the same level as the Iliad, and is of interest to historians, anthropologists, literary critics, and students all over the world.

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HISTORY

Towards the end of the 8th century the Anglo-Saxons suffer from the attacks of the Scandinavians, mostly Norwegians and Danes.

In 878 — Alfred, king of Wessex, gained an overwhelming victory over the Scandinavians and made them sign the Wedmore Treaty. The Scandinavians had to withdraw from Wessex and Western Mercia, but they remained in all the other parts of England they occupied and that territory came to be known as "the Danelaw".

11th century: Danelaw ends in 1017 with the complete occupation of England. For the next 25 years England was ruled by Danish kings.

Norman conquest of 1066. Army headed by William, duke of Normandy, crossed the Channel and defeated the English army. William the Conqueror became king of England.

From that time the new period in the English history begins.

Middle English literature 1066 – 1485

The term Middle English literature refers to the literature written in the form of the English language known as Middle English, from the 12th century until the 1470s, when the Chancery Standard, a form of London-based English, became widespread and the printing press regularized the language.

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Achievements and inventions of Middle English period:

• The beginning of the Middle English prose was marked by John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible into the London dialect.

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John Wycliff believed that the organized Church was contrary to the Bible. With the help of his followers Wycliffe produced dozens of English language manuscript copies of his scriptures. They were translated out of the Latin Vulgate, which was the only source text available to Wycliffe. The Pope was so infuriated by his teachings and his translation of the Bible into English, that 44 years after Wycliffe had died, he ordered the bones to be dug-up, crushed, and scattered in the river! Wycliffe’s translation met the demand of the people and had been well known all over England before the official Catholic church banned it after the author's death.

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• a complete economic survey of the country carried out in 1086, which was popularly known as the Domesday Book [´du:mzdeibuk]. William Caxton learnt printing techniques in Germany and set up the first English printing press in 1476. This was a technological revolution which transformed both reading habits and the language itself: from now on there was a tendency to fix spelling, vocabulary and grammar.

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William the Conqueror brought a new language and culture to England where a very strong society was established.

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The nobility spoke French, the common people spoke English, and the language of the church was Latin. Thus each social class had its own language and literature. That period of English literature was called Anglo-Norman. At this time the French Language penetrated into English and influenced it greatly.

As there were three main classes and three languages there were three flows of literature.

• The Normans brought such genres as elegy and the chivalric romance in verse to England. The romance told of adventures and love and glorified knighthood.

• The churchmen wrote in Latin about religion, their books were moralizing and supported the feudal order of things.

• In the literature of the townsfolk we find the fable, a short story with animals for characters and a moral in the end. Besides fables there were fabliau - funny stories about cunning townspeople, rich merchants and their smart wives.

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Middle English language

Old English language developed into Middle English language which was much easier to read and understand. Thus Middle English Literature was born.

Bilingualism gradually becomes more common, especially among those who deal with both upper and lower classes. The influence of the Normans can be illustrated by looking at two words, beef and cow. Beef, commonly eaten by the aristocracy, derives from the Anglo-Norman, while the Anglo-Saxon commoners, who tended the cattle, retained the Germanic cow.

It is useful to compare various versions of a familiar text to see the differences between Old, Middle, and Modern English.

• Fæder ure þu þe eart on heofonum si þin nama gehalgod tobecume

• Oure fadir þat art in heuenes halwid be þi name

• Our father which art in heauen, hallowed be thy name.

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There are main categories of Middle English Literature: Folk, Religious, and Courtly.

RELIGIOUS LITERATURE. EARLY LITERATURE

Hagiography – writings on the subject of holy people, biographies of ecclesiastical and secular leaders.

The Orrmulum (c.1200) is a collection of the Gospels, in verse, comprising about 10,000 lines in all. The collection was written c.1200 by Orrm (or Orrmin). The author had his own system of spelling and the Orrmulum is of great importance for the study of Middle English phonology.

Of approximately the same date, The Owl and the Nightingale is the first example in English of the débat, a popular continental form; in the poem, the owl, strictly monastic and didactic, and the nightingale, a free and amorous secular spirit, charmingly debate the virtues of their respective ways of life.

The allegory may represent the argument between asceticism and pleasure, philosophy and art, or the older didactic poetry and the newer secular love poetry.

FOLKLORE

As any world literature English literature was developed under the influence of Folklore traditions.

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In the 12^th century the English knights led by King Richard the Lionheart went to recapture the Holy Land, captured by the Turks. The nobility possessed the land, all the rest had nothing. That is why the English peasants wanted freedom, they robbed the rich and were hiding in the deep woods. England’s favourite hero, Robin Hood appeared in that time.

The Robin Hood Ballads

In the 12th century only the King of England could hunt in certain forests of the country. If anybody killed a deer there, he was punished by death. The men who guarded those forests were king's foresters, and the Head Forester was a very important person. The Head Forester of the Sherwood Forest, which was near the town of Nottingham, had a son, Robin by name. The sheriff of Nottingham hated Robin's father and threw him into prison. There in the prison Robin’s father died very soon. Robin wanted to become the Head Forester instead of the new Head Forester who was appointed to his father's place. Finally Robin killed the Forester. Then he had to hide in the forest, because the Sheriff of Nottingham was looking for him. A large sum of money was promised for Robin's head. The Sherwood forest, which was called the Greenwood, was the shelter for many outlaws, hiding from the sheriff and the rich Nobles. The outlaws wore green clothes to hide better in the Greenwood. Soon Robin Hood became their leader. They robbed only rich people to give their money to the poor.

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Popular ballads show Robin as a tireless enemy of the Norman oppression. They sing about his readiness to help the poor and the needy. Early ballads show Robin Hood's qualities: his special regard for women, his outstanding skill as an archer, his anti-clericalism, and his particular animosity towards the Sheriff of Nottingham are already clear. Robin always remains a ‘yeoman’ – a freeman, a trickster (a person who plays tricks or otherwise disobeys normal rules and conventional behavior.), and a man with a bow in a wood.

1489 "A Little Geste of Robin Hood" was printed, when the first Robin Hood Ballads were collected. Such ballads as "Robin Hood and Little John" or "Robin Hood in Nottingham" and "Robin Hood and the King" are known all over the world.

The first printed version of the Robin Hood story begins like this:

“Lithe and Lysten, gentylmen

That be of frebore blode

I shall tell of a good yeman

His name was Robyn Hode

Robyn was a proude outlawe

Whyles he walked on grounde

So curteyse an outlawe as he was one

Was never none yfound”.

COURTLY LITERATURE

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Creator and bearer of courtly culture was the military caste that originated back in the VII - VIII centuries. Chivalry, a special privileged class of medieval society, for centuries, has developed its own distinctive traditions and ethical standards. Crusades contributed the formation of ideas, customs and morals of chivalry.

The flowering of chivalric culture falls on XII-XIII centuries. - The final formation into independent and powerful layer.

If in Early Medieval chivalric values were mostly of heroic character in 12^th c. specific knighthood ideals and culture were formed.

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Chivalry was the name given to a set of values which the perfect knight was supposed to respect. It included such ideas as:

• the knight would defend any 'damsel in distress' (any woman in difficulties)

• he would revenge any insults to his good name and honour

• he would serve God and the king.

• The cult of 'courtly love', chaste and near-fanatical service to one's lady, was also an important influence, especially on the literature of the time

Court love - a medieval concept of love, according to which the relationship between knight and Lady are like relations between vassal and his lord.

Sources

1. The most important influence on the composition of the ideal courtly love had a Roman poet Ovid (1.) Poetic "treatise" which - "The Art of Love" - became a kind of encyclopedia of the behavior of a knight in love with a Beautiful Lady: he trembles with love, not sleeping, he was pale, may die because of his feelings.

2. Submission of such behavior become more complex due to Christian ideas about the cult of the Virgin Mary - Beautiful Lady as a way of spiritual love.

3. The impact of Arabic mystical philosophy that developed the concept of platonic feelings.

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