- •Contents
- •In English and Ukrainian languages 79
- •Fundamentals
- •1. Basic units of language and speech
- •2. Word as a basic language unit. The structure of words
- •3. The classification of words
- •4. The combinability of words
- •6. Part of speech as one of the main grammatical notions
- •7. Contrastive studies of languages
- •8. Contrastive linguistics as a science and an academic
- •9. Contrastive grammar as a part of contrastive
- •10. Methods of research, used in contrastive studies
- •12. Parts of speech classification in English and Ukrainian languages
- •Chapter 1 Noun as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •1. Noun as a part of speech: general characteristics
- •3. The category of case
- •4. The category of gender
- •5. The category of the names of living beings and lifeless objects
- •IV. Define the type of declension (I, II, III or IV) and the gender of the given Ukrainian nouns. Think up at least five sentences, using some of these nouns, and render these sentences
- •Into English. Do the case and gender characteristics coincide in both languages?
- •V. A) Define to which semantic group of Singularia Tantum nouns belong the following English and Ukrainian nouns:
- •Languages
- •1. Adjective as a part of speech: general characteristics. Grammatical categories of adjective
- •2. Degrees of comparison of adjectives
- •II. Find all the adjectives in the following piece of writing. Classify these adjectives being either qualitative or relative (if possible other type); comment on their grammatical characteristics.
- •III. Identify whether adjectives used in each sentence are in the positive, comparative or superlative form. Define whether each form is synthetic or analytical.
- •Languages
- •1. Numeral as a part of speech: general characteristics
- •2. Grammatical categories of numeral
- •II. Find all the numerals in the following piece of writing. Classify these numerals being either cardinal or ordinal (is pos sible other type); comment on their grammatical characteristics.
- •III. Classify the given numerals being either cardinal or ordinal (if possible other type).
- •IV. Comment on the grammatical characteristics of Ukrainian numerals, using the text given below. Stress on the isomorphic and allomorphic features of English and Ukrainian numerals.
- •Languages
- •1. Pronoun as a part of speech: general characteristics. Grammatical categories of pronoun
- •2. Personal and possessive pronouns
- •3. Reflexive and strengthening pronouns
- •4. Demonstrative pronouns
- •6. Indefinite and negative pronouns
- •7. Allomorphic classes of pronouns in English and
- •II. Underline the pronoun in the following pieces of text, conversation. Identify the type of each pronoun; comment on their grammatical characteristics.
- •1. Verb as a part of speech: general characteristics
- •2. The category of person
- •4. The category of aspect
- •4. The category of aspect
- •5. The category of tense
- •5.1. The Present Tense
- •5.2. The Past Tense
- •5.3. The Future Tense. The tense form "Future-in-the-past" and sequence of tenses of the English language.
- •6. The category of voice
- •7. The category of mood
- •7.1. The Indicative and Imperative moods
- •7.2. The Conditional mood
- •VI. Underline all the verbs in the following pieces of text. Analyze them according to the grammatical meaning they express (tense, aspect, voice, person, number, mood).
- •VI. Underline all the verbs in the following pieces of text. Analyze them according to the grammatical meaning they express (tense, aspect, voice, person, number, mood).
- •Languages
- •2. Infinitive in English and Ukrainian languages
- •4. The English gerund
- •Languages
- •1. Adverb as a part of speech: general characteristics
- •2. Degrees of comparison of adverbs
- •3. Words of the category of state (statives or adlinks)
- •VI. Underline each adverb in the text below and identify its semantic category (qualitative, quantitative, circumstantial, or some other type).
- •VIII. Form adverbs from the following word combination. Think of their English equivalents.
- •Languages
- •1. Preposition as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •3. Particle as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •4. Modal words as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •5. Interjection as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •6. The English article
- •II. Underline prepositions in the sentences/passages below. Comment upon the types of found prepositions.
- •III. Underline conjunctions in the sentences/passages below. Comment upon the types of found conjunctions.
- •V. Underline parenthetic words and word-combinations in the sentences below. Analyze them according to the modal meaning they express in the sentence.
- •1. Sentence as the basic unit of syntax
- •2. The expression of syntactic relations
- •3. The classification of sentences as to their structure
- •1. The subject
- •2. The predicate
- •2.1. The simple predicate
- •3. The object
- •4. The attribute
- •5. The adverbial modifier
- •6. Complex parts of the sentence
- •1. The composite sentence
- •2. The compound sentence with conjunctions
- •2.1. The copulative compound sentence.
- •2.2. The disjunctive compound sentence.
- •2.5. Compound sentences with the meaning of suddenness (складносурядне речения i3 значениям раптовостГ)
- •3. Compound sentences with asyndetically joined clauses (складносурядш речения без сполучникав)
- •1. The subject clause / Шдметове шдрядне речения
- •2. The predicative clause / Присудкове пвдрядне
- •3. The object/objective clause / Шдрядне додаткове
- •4. Attributive clauses / гНдрядш означальш речения
- •5. Adverbial clauses / Пвдрядш обставинш речения
- •5.1. Adverbial clauses of place / шдрядш речения мкщя.
- •5.6. Adverbial clauses of cause / шдрядш реченЩ причини.
- •5.7. Adverbial clauses of condition / пщрядш речения умови.
- •5.9. Adverbial clauses of result / шдрядш речении наелвдку.
- •II. Identify complex sentences in the passages below. Dwell upon the types of clauses in these sentences; describe the means of connection of subordinate clauses to the matrix clause.
- •References
3. Particle as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
The particle as a part of speech is characterized by the following features:
Its lexico-grammatical meaning of "emphatic specification".
Its unilateral combinability with words of different classes, groups of words, even clauses.
Its function of a specifier.
Particles possess neither grammatical categories, nor typical stem-building elements.
As far as their structure is concerned, English particles may be simple (just, still, yet, even, else), derivative {merely, simply, alone), compound (also).
Very few English particles (else, merely, solely) are not homonymous with other words. Most of them are identical in form with adverbs (exactly, precisely, simply, never, still), adjectives (even, right, just, only), pronouns {all, either), conjunctions (but), articles (the) [24; 217-218].
Ukrainian particles are subdivided into two types according to their mode of functioning: 1) phrase particles and word-building and form-building particles (фразов! та слово- i формотворч1).
Phrase particles arrange a certain type of a sentence rendering the speaker's attitude to the content of the whole sentence or modify one of its components (ось, cnpaedi, лише, etc.).
Word-building particles function in connection with other words. Unlike phrase particles they can change their place in the word structure or can be separated altogether at declination (будь-, казна-, де-, -ж, etc.). With their help pronouns, adverbs and conjunctions are formed.
Form-building particles are used to create different grammatical forms, e.g. particles би, б help to form conditional mood.
Unlike conjunctions and prepositions English and Ukrainian particles do not serve to express syntactic relations [15; 213-217].
4. Modal words as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
The class of words called "modal words" or "modals" includes the unchangeable words which reveal the attitude of the speaker towards the idea he/she is expressing. These words usually perform the function of parenthetic part of the sentence (вставний член речения). According to their meaning they express assumption, suggestion or subjective evaluation of the utterance content as desirable or non-desirable, e.g.: certainly, of course - звичайно; no doubt - безперечно; surely - безсумшвно; perhaps, maybe - можливо; probably -напевно; happily - на щастя; unhappily - на нещастя and others.
As a part of speech English and Ukrainian modals are characterized by the following features:
Their lexico-grammatical meaning of "modality".
Their negative combinability.
3. Their syntactic functions of parenthetical elements and sentence-words.
"Modality" as a linguistic term denotes the relation of the contents of speech to reality as viewed by the speaker. When describing the meaning of "modality" in reference to the small group of modal verbs we are in fact dealing with "lexical modality". Modality of the indicative, conditional and imperative moods is "grammatical modality". Now we are dealing with the meaning of "modality" uniting a part of speech. This is a "lexico-grammatical modality".
Modal words indicate whether the speaker is sure that the contents of his\her utterance corresponds to reality, or he\she doubts it, or he\she regards it as something possible, probable, desirable, etc. Accordingly, modal words can be divided into several groups. Thus, English modal words include words denoting:
various shades of certainty: certainly, surely, of course, no doubt, undoubtedly, indeed, etc.;
various degrees of probability: maybe, perhaps, possibly, probably, etc.;
different shades of desirability (undesirability): happily, luckily, fortunately, unhappily, etc.
Functioning as a parenthetical element of a sentence, a modal word is usually connected with the sentence as a whole, e.g.;
Apparently, they were fully prepared for the coming of visitors.
216
217
But sometimes it may be connected with a part of a sentence only, e.g.:
We worked that land for maybe a hundred years [24; 202-204]. In Ukrainian modal words are not viewed as a separate part of speech by some linguists. For example, in the book "Modern Ukrainian language", edited by O.D. Ponomariv modal words are considered not as a phenomenon of morphology but a phenomenon of syntax. Thus, O.D. Ponomariv distinguishes parenthetic constructions (вставш конструющ) which are subdivided into three kinds-parenthetic words, word combinations and sentences. According to O.D. Ponomariv the role of parenthetic words is often performed by modal words (мабутъ, певно, безперечно, безсумшвно, etc.). The majority of them correlate with adverbs (звичайно, нарештг, власне iMoeipno, взагалг, навпаки, etc.). Very often the role of parenthetic words is performed by adverbs (по-моему, no-перше, зрештою, наприклад, без сумтву, etc.) [15; 297-298].
What is in common concerning English and Ukrainian modal words is the fact that the majority of modal words has developed from the adverbs of manner and has retained their formal characteristics -in English the suffix -ly, in Ukrainian - the ending -o. Some of them have been formed by the way of legalization of word combinations for example: of course, indeed; на щастя, на нещастя, без сумтву and others.
Among the modal words in Ukrainian there are words of the verbal origin: здаетъся, кажутъ, тоже, розумгеться and others. In English there are very few modal words that have developed from verbs, compare: maybe [5; 108].