VI. Underline each adverb in the text below and identify its semantic category (qualitative, quantitative, circumstantial, or some other type).

1й здалось, що це саме з Укра'ши подув вггерець. 1нколи Тй вчувалися пахошт м'яти, любистку. 1нод1 вона начебто чула кування зозул! ... Чшсь рщш голоси ... Тод1 наказувала вертати. Якнайшвидше.

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Вогонь скажешв ... Пов1тря навколо ставало нестерпно гарячим. А з неба палило сонце, падав на людей гарячий попш, снопи розлггалися навс1б!ч ... Гнав вогонь прямо на житла. I щогодини сотн1 людей залишалися без дслшвок ...

На ранок на замиленому кош примчав з Biiroi Церкви сам Петро Конашевич-Сагайдачний. Гетьман швидко оглянув пожарисько i повел1в ламати, зносити буд1вл1 навколо мюця пожеж1, рубати дерева, утворювати навколо своервдну мертву смугу. Це був единий cnoci6 зупинити пожежу.

*The material is taken from the article "Beprori Лщя. Перев1ряти i теорто, i практику" // Урок Украшсько!'. - № 2-3, 2007. - P.44.

VII. Form from the given below adverbs comparative and superlative degrees of comparison. Render the given adverbs into English and answer the question whether they also are able to form degrees of comparison.

Чисто, виразно, близько, дорого, високо, швидко, гарно, погано.

VIII. Form adverbs from the following word combination. Think of their English equivalents.

Турецькою мовою, попереднього дня, у п'ять разш, в окремих мюцях, два рази, дуже давно, з молодих лгг, на дв1 частини, в будь-який час, вщ нишшнього дня, у правий бж, другий раз, дуже рщко, два дш тому.

*The material is taken from the article "Нове в nporpaMi та методищ" // Урок Укра'шськоУ. - № 9-10, 2005. - Р.45.

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CHAPTER 8 Functional parts of speech in English and Ukrainian

Languages

1. Preposition as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages

The preposition is a part of speech characterized by the following features:

1. Its lexico-grammatical meaning of "relations (of substances)". Ukrainian prepositions are considered to be the functional part

of speech which together with cases expresses dependence of one notional word on the other in a word group or in a sentence and by this prepositions render the relations of objects, actions, states and qualities denoted by these words. Ukrainian prepositions possess both lexical and grammatical meanings. The lexical meaning is more vivid in the recently created derivative prepositions (коло, близъко, неподалт) and it is shadowed in primary prepositions. Besides prepositions possess the categorial (or grammatical) meaning which is understood as the property of prepositions to point out towards syntactic relations between words (that is relations of subordination) [15; 200].

2. Its bilateral combinability with a right-hand noun (or noun-equivalent) and a left-hand combinability with a word belonging to almost any part of speech.

2. Its syntactic function of a linking word.

Prepositions are not characterized by any grammatical categories or typical stem-building elements.

As far as their structure is concerned English prepositions, like other parts of speech, fall into the following groups:

1. Sitnple or primitive, e.g. at, in, of, by, with, for, etc.

2. Derivative, e.g. below, beside, along, etc.

3. Compound, e.g. inside, within, into, throughout, etc.

4. Composite, e.g. instead of, in accordance with, owing to, in front of etc.

Many prepositions are homonymous with adverbs (about, before, below, down, since, etc.), conjunctions (before, since, etc.), particles (regarding, concerning, etc.), lexico-grammatical word-morphemes (in, on, up, etc.).

Similar to other parts of speech the lexico-grammatical meaning of prepositions is an abstraction from their individual lexical meanings. Let us compare the following combinations of words:

the book in the bag,

the book on the bag,

the book under the bag,

the book near the bag.

In all of them the preposition shows the relation of one noun to another, which reflects the relations of the corresponding substances in the world of reality. This meaning of "relations (of substances)" common to all prepositions is their lexico-grammatical meaning. But each preposition in the expressions above shows a different relation revealing thus its individual lexical meaning.

It is much more difficult to define lexical meaning of a preposition than that of a noun or an adjective, because prepositions usually have very general, abstract meanings.

It is necessary to make some remarks regarding the classification of prepositions according to their meaning into those of place, direction, time, etc. When we say that the prepositions at or by have local meanings in at window, by the window, and temporal meanings in at 6 о 'clock, by 6 о 'clock we simply add the meanings of the neighbouring words to those of prepositions. Originally, a preposition like in is supposed to have had a concrete local meaning. But at present in is used with such a variety of words that it has a very vague and general meaning, something like "inside some sphere". That sphere may be local as in Kyiv, temporal, as in January, abstract as in love, in thought, etc.

Prepositions like in, at, on, by, etc. are used with all kinds of nouns, so that the local, temporal and other meanings of the prepositional construction do not depend on the preposition, but on the noun. Such prepositions may be called general. There are some other prepositions which may be called special. They are used chiefly with

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nouns ot certain meaning. p_or instance, the preposition till can be used with nouns like _mid_n{ght dawn, time, but not with window, town, place and the 1|^_е j_{nat snows} that till has acquired a temporal meaning. Ihe ca_usai meaning of the special preposition because of is so strong that j_t determines the meaning of the prepositional construction irrespective of the noun. Compare: because of the time (place, love, Joht-л

The combj_nabffity

it is followed b connected with.

of a preposition is rather peculiar. As a rule,

V a noun or a noun equivalent which it is closely

of of of of of of of

John

him

going

us

them

mutton

it

Preposition

Noun (or noun equivalent)

At the same time it is associated with some preceding notional word bq_ong_mg _{to ne}arly any part of speech. We may speak ot stable nght-ha_u(j connections and variable left-hand connections.

Parts of	speecQ
verb	7 - >\-
	thinh:
adj.	cleve^
adlink	afraiq
num.	threa
pron.	many,
noun	leg
adv.	west

Bilateral ^c^_mbinability is typical not only of prepositions but of other linking w^_rcj_{s as we}rj. conjunctions, link-verbs, and modal verbs. But comhi_na],jijty ₀f prepositions differs from that of all of them. As stateq _агюуе, prepositions have stable right-hand and variable lelt-hanq connections. Conjunctions and link-verbs have both connections уагц_Ь1е (Compare: He is a student, afraid of being late). Modal verbs hav_{fe both cormec}tions stable: the subject on the left and the infinitive on \_{Q right [24;} 206-208].

Preposition ₀f _mo(j_ern Ukrainian language create a complex system. According _{to me}j,_{r or}jgj_n they are subdivided into primary (original) and Secondary (derivative) (первинт чи nepBicm i вторинш чи пох^дщ) primary prepositions are rather few in number: на, у, в, за, од, §_гд Q_e3^ ^_т^ ₅^ мЪк, кр1зъ, nid, no, при, про, ради, через, о (ooj. ih^y differ f_r0m the secondary ones by a greater degree ot abstraction anq generalization of their meamng.

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Secondary prepositions have been created from different notional parts of speech quite recently. The biggest number make up prepositions formed from adverbs (навколо, близько, зг1дно, кругом, поблизу, поруч, etc.). The smaller number is formed by the substantival prepositions (край, ктецъ, протягом, коло, etc.) and verbal ones (завдяки, виключаючи).

According to their structural properties and morphological characteristics Ukrainian prepositions are subdivided into simple -with one root stem (за, перед, на, коло, мгж, etc.); compound (складш) - formed from two or more simple prepositions (поверх, заради, поза, щодо, з-пом1ж, etc.); composite (складен]) created from different categories of notional words and prepositions (y напрям1 до, незважаючи на, ycnid за, зг1дно з, etc.).

Prepositions are differentiated according to their semantics. The biggest group is made up of prepositions possessing the meaning of space relations (значения просторовосп). The general quantity of Ukrainian prepositions is above 220, with 137 being prepositions denoting spatial relations [15; 200-202].

Though the lexico-grammatical meaning, the combinability and function of English prepositions are similar to those of the Ukrainian counterparts, the role of prepositions in the two languages is different. This difference, however, depends not on the very prepositions, but on the nouns they introduce.

The lexico-grammatical meaning of prepositions, being the one of "relations (of substances)", approximates to the grammatical meaning of case.

In the Ukrainian language with its six-case (or seven-case) system the relations of substances are mostly denoted by case morphemes. Prepositions are but a secondary means of specifying these relations. In English the only positive case morpheme -s' shows but a very limited number of relations. So, prepositions become a primary means of denoting relations of substances. Their role, as we see, is determined by the grammatical system of the language.

In Ukrainian the two means of expressing relations are interdependent. Certain prepositions go with certain cases (до столу, eid стола, над столом, etc.). So, the preposition is closely connected

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with the noun it precedes. It cannot be used without the noun. In English the preposition is much more independent. It can be separated from the noun, as in The house I speak of. Several prepositions may refer to one noun in the sentence, as in He played with and read to the children. A preposition may refer not only to a word, but also to a word-combination {That is for you to decide) or a clause {It all depends on how he will act) [15; 206-211].

2. Conjunction as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages

The conjunction is a part of speech characterized by the following features:

1. Its lexico-grammatical meaning of "relations between substances, action, properties, situations", etc.

2. Its peculiar combinability. As a rale, a conjunction connects two similar units: words of a similar type or clauses.

3. Its syntactic function of a linking word.

Conjunctions are not characterized by any grammatical categories or typical stem-building elements. As to their stem structure English conjunctions are, as usual, divided into simple {and, but, or that, till, if, etc.), derivative {until, unless, because, provided, etc.), compound {although, whereas, etc.) and composite {as if, in order that, as soon as, either ...or, neither ... nor, etc.).

A variety of English composite conjunctions is the group of the so called correlative conjunctions which go in pairs: both ... and, either ... or, no sooner ... than, etc.

Many conjunctions are homonymous with adverbs and prepositions {after, since, before), pronouns {that, neither), particles {supposing, provided).

The lexico-grammatical meaning of conjunctions is an abstraction from their lexical meanings. The latter are also very general, abstract and rather weak. Therefore conjunctions can be treated as semi-notional words.

Regarding the nature of the relations they serve to express conjunctions are usually divided into two subclasses: coordinating {and, or, both ... and, etc.) and subordinating {if that, as soon as, etc.).

The former connect syntactical units which are equal in rank. The latter are used to show the dependence of one unit on another.

This is quite clear and the government admits it.

If they did so, their complete fare would be refunded.

The division of conjunctions into coordinating and subordina­ting ones is chiefly based on their lexical meanings and the types of units they connect.

According to their meanings coordinating conjunctions are divided into:

a) copulative (and, both ... and, neither ... nor, not only ... but also, as well as, etc.) denoting addition, combination, interdependence;

b) adversative {but, still, yet, however, nevertheless, etc.) denoting contradiction;

c) disjunctive {or, either ... or) denoting separation, choice.

In different situations and speech environments conjunctions may acquire various shades of meaning. The conjunction and, for instance, connotes "consequence" in The rain was beating and he walked on and "contrast" in She is the beauty of the family and I am quite plain [24; 211-214].

Ukrainian conjunctions are also subdivided into subtypes. According to their origin there can be non-derivative (непохщш: i, a, 6o, ui, та, чи, etc.) and derivative conjunctions (похщт) formed from different parts of speech: a) from verbs {хоч, лише, незважаючи на те що), b) partially from pronouns {щоб, якщо, тим-то), с) from adverbs {буцгм, де, коли, куди, однак, дарма що).

According to their structure there are differentiated three types of conjunctions: 1. simple which are non-derivative; 2. complex {також:, якщо, тбито, причому, проте, etc.); 3. compound (тому що, лиш ттъки, у зв 'язку з тим що, etc.).

Ukrainian conjunctions are also subdivided into coordinating and subordinating (сполучники шдрядносп i сурядносп) conjunctions depending on the character of syntactic relations they express between words or sentences. Coordinating conjunctions are as well in their turn subdivided into: a) copulative (еднальнк /, и, та, також); b) adversative (протиставнк а, але, проте) and с) disjunctive (роздшов1: або, то ... то, чи ... чи).

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Subordinating conjunctions (котрий, що, як) cannot be classified into distinct separate classes [15; 208-210].