- •Contents
- •In English and Ukrainian languages 79
- •Fundamentals
- •1. Basic units of language and speech
- •2. Word as a basic language unit. The structure of words
- •3. The classification of words
- •4. The combinability of words
- •6. Part of speech as one of the main grammatical notions
- •7. Contrastive studies of languages
- •8. Contrastive linguistics as a science and an academic
- •9. Contrastive grammar as a part of contrastive
- •10. Methods of research, used in contrastive studies
- •12. Parts of speech classification in English and Ukrainian languages
- •Chapter 1 Noun as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •1. Noun as a part of speech: general characteristics
- •3. The category of case
- •4. The category of gender
- •5. The category of the names of living beings and lifeless objects
- •IV. Define the type of declension (I, II, III or IV) and the gender of the given Ukrainian nouns. Think up at least five sentences, using some of these nouns, and render these sentences
- •Into English. Do the case and gender characteristics coincide in both languages?
- •V. A) Define to which semantic group of Singularia Tantum nouns belong the following English and Ukrainian nouns:
- •Languages
- •1. Adjective as a part of speech: general characteristics. Grammatical categories of adjective
- •2. Degrees of comparison of adjectives
- •II. Find all the adjectives in the following piece of writing. Classify these adjectives being either qualitative or relative (if possible other type); comment on their grammatical characteristics.
- •III. Identify whether adjectives used in each sentence are in the positive, comparative or superlative form. Define whether each form is synthetic or analytical.
- •Languages
- •1. Numeral as a part of speech: general characteristics
- •2. Grammatical categories of numeral
- •II. Find all the numerals in the following piece of writing. Classify these numerals being either cardinal or ordinal (is pos sible other type); comment on their grammatical characteristics.
- •III. Classify the given numerals being either cardinal or ordinal (if possible other type).
- •IV. Comment on the grammatical characteristics of Ukrainian numerals, using the text given below. Stress on the isomorphic and allomorphic features of English and Ukrainian numerals.
- •Languages
- •1. Pronoun as a part of speech: general characteristics. Grammatical categories of pronoun
- •2. Personal and possessive pronouns
- •3. Reflexive and strengthening pronouns
- •4. Demonstrative pronouns
- •6. Indefinite and negative pronouns
- •7. Allomorphic classes of pronouns in English and
- •II. Underline the pronoun in the following pieces of text, conversation. Identify the type of each pronoun; comment on their grammatical characteristics.
- •1. Verb as a part of speech: general characteristics
- •2. The category of person
- •4. The category of aspect
- •4. The category of aspect
- •5. The category of tense
- •5.1. The Present Tense
- •5.2. The Past Tense
- •5.3. The Future Tense. The tense form "Future-in-the-past" and sequence of tenses of the English language.
- •6. The category of voice
- •7. The category of mood
- •7.1. The Indicative and Imperative moods
- •7.2. The Conditional mood
- •VI. Underline all the verbs in the following pieces of text. Analyze them according to the grammatical meaning they express (tense, aspect, voice, person, number, mood).
- •VI. Underline all the verbs in the following pieces of text. Analyze them according to the grammatical meaning they express (tense, aspect, voice, person, number, mood).
- •Languages
- •2. Infinitive in English and Ukrainian languages
- •4. The English gerund
- •Languages
- •1. Adverb as a part of speech: general characteristics
- •2. Degrees of comparison of adverbs
- •3. Words of the category of state (statives or adlinks)
- •VI. Underline each adverb in the text below and identify its semantic category (qualitative, quantitative, circumstantial, or some other type).
- •VIII. Form adverbs from the following word combination. Think of their English equivalents.
- •Languages
- •1. Preposition as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •3. Particle as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •4. Modal words as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •5. Interjection as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •6. The English article
- •II. Underline prepositions in the sentences/passages below. Comment upon the types of found prepositions.
- •III. Underline conjunctions in the sentences/passages below. Comment upon the types of found conjunctions.
- •V. Underline parenthetic words and word-combinations in the sentences below. Analyze them according to the modal meaning they express in the sentence.
- •1. Sentence as the basic unit of syntax
- •2. The expression of syntactic relations
- •3. The classification of sentences as to their structure
- •1. The subject
- •2. The predicate
- •2.1. The simple predicate
- •3. The object
- •4. The attribute
- •5. The adverbial modifier
- •6. Complex parts of the sentence
- •1. The composite sentence
- •2. The compound sentence with conjunctions
- •2.1. The copulative compound sentence.
- •2.2. The disjunctive compound sentence.
- •2.5. Compound sentences with the meaning of suddenness (складносурядне речения i3 значениям раптовостГ)
- •3. Compound sentences with asyndetically joined clauses (складносурядш речения без сполучникав)
- •1. The subject clause / Шдметове шдрядне речения
- •2. The predicative clause / Присудкове пвдрядне
- •3. The object/objective clause / Шдрядне додаткове
- •4. Attributive clauses / гНдрядш означальш речения
- •5. Adverbial clauses / Пвдрядш обставинш речения
- •5.1. Adverbial clauses of place / шдрядш речения мкщя.
- •5.6. Adverbial clauses of cause / шдрядш реченЩ причини.
- •5.7. Adverbial clauses of condition / пщрядш речения умови.
- •5.9. Adverbial clauses of result / шдрядш речении наелвдку.
- •II. Identify complex sentences in the passages below. Dwell upon the types of clauses in these sentences; describe the means of connection of subordinate clauses to the matrix clause.
- •References
5.1. The Present Tense
In Ukrainian the forms of present tense are characteristic only of the verbs of the imperfective aspect (пишу, думаю). In English all the verbs without exception can be used in the present tense.
According to the character of personal endings in the present tense Ukrainian verbs of the imperfective aspect (as well as the verbs of the perfective aspect with the future meaning) are subdivided into two conjugations (ддевщмши). The first conjugation (перша /певщмша) includes the verbs, which in the third person plural have endings -уть (-ють) and in other personal forms the vocal -e (-e), e.g.: везуть — везе, везеш, веземо; читаютъ — читав, читаемо and so on. The second conjugation includes the verbs, which in the third person plural have the endings -ать (-ять) and in other personal forms the vocal -u (-i), e.g.: лежать - лежиш, лежишь, лежимо; стоять - сто'гш, стоШь, стоШо and others.
The English language has four present tenses: Present Indefinite, Present Continuous, Present Perfect and Present Perfect Continuous. The difference between all these forms is caused by the general content of the grammar category to which they belong, that is the category of aspect or the category of time reference.
The basic meaning of the Present Indefinite tense is the action which is happening at the time always including to some extent the moment of speaking. The character of the course of action (характер nepe6iry дц) can be different: it can be the continuous action (the sun shines — ceimumb сонце), the completed action (Imeet him again — я знову з ним 3ycmpi4aiocb), the action indefinite concerning its duration or completeness (/ understand you - я вас розумт). Sometimes it renders the repeated character of the action: / often notice things that escape you — я часто пом1чаю pe4i, на ят ей не звертаете уваги.
147
Similar to Ukrainian present tense it often renders past or future events. Due to this, events acquire a more vivid character, e.g.; Then he comes to me and says ...I от вт приходить до мене i коже. Tomorrow I go home. Завтра я idy додому.
The Present Continuous Tense renders the action as the process, which is actually happening at the moment of speaking: He is looking at you. - Bin дивиться на вас. The action expressed by this tense is regarded to some extent as a temporary one and its duration is considered as a limited one. For example, we can say: The man is standing in the garden. - Людина стогть у садку., but we can hardly say: The house is standing in the garden. - Будинок зараз стогть у садку. This tense form can also be used in the future meaning: He is coming tomorrow. -Bin пршздитъ завтра.
The meanings of the Present Perfect tense are very different. In many cases it has the relative-tense meaning (вщносно-часове значения), e.g.: He has just passed. - Вт щойно тут пройшов. In other cases the meaning of the action result is rendered: He has arrived. - Bin уже прибув. That is why some linguists consider perfect forms as a separate resultative aspect. Usually the Perfect Tense renders the single action, not included into the sequence of successive events that happen one after another that is why it is not used in story telling. In Ukrainian it is usually rendered with the help of the past tense.
The Present Perfect Continuous renders the action as the process, which is maximally brought close to the moment of speaking. At this the duration of the process is stressed, e.g.: / have been living here for two months. - Я живу тут уже два мгсяцг. Sometimes it can be substituted by the Present Perfect in such situations: / have lived here for two months. - the meaning remains the same. In Ukrainian it is usually rendered with the help of the present tense.
One more peculiar feature of the English aspect-tense system is the availability of special "expressive forms", which render the same action that the corresponding tense form but with the greater emotionality and intensity. Such an expressive present tense is formed with the help of the auxiliary verb "Jo", e.g.: / do know him. - Я токи знаю його [5; 78-80].