- •Contents
- •In English and Ukrainian languages 79
- •Fundamentals
- •1. Basic units of language and speech
- •2. Word as a basic language unit. The structure of words
- •3. The classification of words
- •4. The combinability of words
- •6. Part of speech as one of the main grammatical notions
- •7. Contrastive studies of languages
- •8. Contrastive linguistics as a science and an academic
- •9. Contrastive grammar as a part of contrastive
- •10. Methods of research, used in contrastive studies
- •12. Parts of speech classification in English and Ukrainian languages
- •Chapter 1 Noun as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •1. Noun as a part of speech: general characteristics
- •3. The category of case
- •4. The category of gender
- •5. The category of the names of living beings and lifeless objects
- •IV. Define the type of declension (I, II, III or IV) and the gender of the given Ukrainian nouns. Think up at least five sentences, using some of these nouns, and render these sentences
- •Into English. Do the case and gender characteristics coincide in both languages?
- •V. A) Define to which semantic group of Singularia Tantum nouns belong the following English and Ukrainian nouns:
- •Languages
- •1. Adjective as a part of speech: general characteristics. Grammatical categories of adjective
- •2. Degrees of comparison of adjectives
- •II. Find all the adjectives in the following piece of writing. Classify these adjectives being either qualitative or relative (if possible other type); comment on their grammatical characteristics.
- •III. Identify whether adjectives used in each sentence are in the positive, comparative or superlative form. Define whether each form is synthetic or analytical.
- •Languages
- •1. Numeral as a part of speech: general characteristics
- •2. Grammatical categories of numeral
- •II. Find all the numerals in the following piece of writing. Classify these numerals being either cardinal or ordinal (is pos sible other type); comment on their grammatical characteristics.
- •III. Classify the given numerals being either cardinal or ordinal (if possible other type).
- •IV. Comment on the grammatical characteristics of Ukrainian numerals, using the text given below. Stress on the isomorphic and allomorphic features of English and Ukrainian numerals.
- •Languages
- •1. Pronoun as a part of speech: general characteristics. Grammatical categories of pronoun
- •2. Personal and possessive pronouns
- •3. Reflexive and strengthening pronouns
- •4. Demonstrative pronouns
- •6. Indefinite and negative pronouns
- •7. Allomorphic classes of pronouns in English and
- •II. Underline the pronoun in the following pieces of text, conversation. Identify the type of each pronoun; comment on their grammatical characteristics.
- •1. Verb as a part of speech: general characteristics
- •2. The category of person
- •4. The category of aspect
- •4. The category of aspect
- •5. The category of tense
- •5.1. The Present Tense
- •5.2. The Past Tense
- •5.3. The Future Tense. The tense form "Future-in-the-past" and sequence of tenses of the English language.
- •6. The category of voice
- •7. The category of mood
- •7.1. The Indicative and Imperative moods
- •7.2. The Conditional mood
- •VI. Underline all the verbs in the following pieces of text. Analyze them according to the grammatical meaning they express (tense, aspect, voice, person, number, mood).
- •VI. Underline all the verbs in the following pieces of text. Analyze them according to the grammatical meaning they express (tense, aspect, voice, person, number, mood).
- •Languages
- •2. Infinitive in English and Ukrainian languages
- •4. The English gerund
- •Languages
- •1. Adverb as a part of speech: general characteristics
- •2. Degrees of comparison of adverbs
- •3. Words of the category of state (statives or adlinks)
- •VI. Underline each adverb in the text below and identify its semantic category (qualitative, quantitative, circumstantial, or some other type).
- •VIII. Form adverbs from the following word combination. Think of their English equivalents.
- •Languages
- •1. Preposition as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •3. Particle as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •4. Modal words as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •5. Interjection as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •6. The English article
- •II. Underline prepositions in the sentences/passages below. Comment upon the types of found prepositions.
- •III. Underline conjunctions in the sentences/passages below. Comment upon the types of found conjunctions.
- •V. Underline parenthetic words and word-combinations in the sentences below. Analyze them according to the modal meaning they express in the sentence.
- •1. Sentence as the basic unit of syntax
- •2. The expression of syntactic relations
- •3. The classification of sentences as to their structure
- •1. The subject
- •2. The predicate
- •2.1. The simple predicate
- •3. The object
- •4. The attribute
- •5. The adverbial modifier
- •6. Complex parts of the sentence
- •1. The composite sentence
- •2. The compound sentence with conjunctions
- •2.1. The copulative compound sentence.
- •2.2. The disjunctive compound sentence.
- •2.5. Compound sentences with the meaning of suddenness (складносурядне речения i3 значениям раптовостГ)
- •3. Compound sentences with asyndetically joined clauses (складносурядш речения без сполучникав)
- •1. The subject clause / Шдметове шдрядне речения
- •2. The predicative clause / Присудкове пвдрядне
- •3. The object/objective clause / Шдрядне додаткове
- •4. Attributive clauses / гНдрядш означальш речения
- •5. Adverbial clauses / Пвдрядш обставинш речения
- •5.1. Adverbial clauses of place / шдрядш речения мкщя.
- •5.6. Adverbial clauses of cause / шдрядш реченЩ причини.
- •5.7. Adverbial clauses of condition / пщрядш речения умови.
- •5.9. Adverbial clauses of result / шдрядш речении наелвдку.
- •II. Identify complex sentences in the passages below. Dwell upon the types of clauses in these sentences; describe the means of connection of subordinate clauses to the matrix clause.
- •References
6. Indefinite and negative pronouns
English indefinite pronouns. In grammatical tradition the class of indefinite pronouns is said to include some, any, every (and their compounds something, anything, somebody, anybody, someone, anyone) all, each, either, much, many, few, little, etc., that is words of different lexical and grammatical nature.
Ukrainian indefinite pronouns: дехто, дещо, хтосъ, щосъ, хто-небудъ, що-небудь, який-небудъ, будь-хто, будъ-гцо, казна-що, казна-хто, абихто, абиякий, etc. are built from the corresponding interrogative pronouns by adding particles -небудъ, ката-, хтозна-, аби-, де-, -съ. They are used to point towards unknown, indefinite objects and their qualities, e.g.: Хтосъ задихаетъся над ними - хто це, хто це? (I. Драч).
Following is the contrastive analysis of indefinite pronouns in both languages. These pronouns in English and in Ukrainian leave the unclear or non-defined notion about some object, person or quality, characteristics or quantity of objects.
The characteristic feature of these pronouns in both languages is the tendency to differentiate the person and the non-person (compare in English somebody, something; in Ukrainian дещо, дехто; щосъ, хтосъ).
hi English the meaning and the usage of pronouns of this class often depends on syntactic factors: pronouns some, any; something,
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anything; somebody, anybody and others can render the similar meaning in different types of sentences {some and its derivatives - in affirmative sentences, any and its derivatives - in interrogative and negative sentences). On the other hand, pronouns that have any in I heir structure have different meanings in interrogative or negative and affirmative sentences. Ukrainian indefinite pronouns, vice versa, have stable, forever attached to them lexical meaning, which does not depend on the syntactic context and is not changed according to the sentence type.
The English indefinite pronouns somebody, anybody and someone, anyone, which denote the person, have the forms of common and possessive cases and can be used in the function of attribute {somebody's bag "чийсъ портфель"). The rest of nouns of I his type are unchangeable.
In Ukrainian all indefinite pronouns have the category of case, and those with interrogative pronouns чий, який in their structure -also have the category of gender and number. Altogether, Ukrainian interrogative, relative and indefinite pronouns possess the category of case, e.g.: хто, кого, кому, кого, ким, на кому (на кгм). Ukrainian interrogative-relative pronouns of the type чий have categories of case, number and gender, e.g.: чий, чие, чия, чш; чий, чийого, чийому, чиш, на чийому.
English indefinite pronouns some, any are often used as noun determiners, being almost similar to articles [5; 66-67].
English negative pronouns are no, nobody, nobody's, none, nothing, neither, nowhere.
Ukrainian negative pronouns include such words as нгхто, нщо, шякий, тчий. They are built from the corresponding interrogative pronouns by adding the particle m- and point towards the total absence of some object or quality. Therefore they possess grammar categories characteristic of interrogative pronouns.
Following is the contrastive analysis of negative pronouns in both languages. Pronouns of this type denote the absence of some object or quality. In both languages they correlate with indefinite pronouns, in English also with the so-called "generalizing" pronouns {all, everybody, everything, both (the meaning of collectiveness)
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every, each either (the meaning of separateness), and in Ukrainian -with the part of defining pronouns, objecting to the availability of the notion, expressed by the mentioned above pronouns.
The number of such pronouns in both languages is not large; in English here belong no, nobody, nothing, none, no one, neither, in Ukrainian - uixmo, нщо, шчий, шякий, conversational шкотрий. English negative pronouns are created by joining together the main negative pronoun no with nouns of a very abstract meaning: body, thing and the indefinite pronoun one. Corresponding Ukrainian pronouns are formed by adding the negative particle m to interrogative pronouns xmo, що, який, чий.
In English negative pronouns are unchangeable, except nobody and no one, which have common and possessive cases. Ukrainian negative pronouns are all declined in a similar way to interrogative pronouns, from which they are created. Two negative pronouns шчий, шякий have the forms of gender and number.
The English pronoun none is often used to replace the word combination "no + noun", e.g.: There was no apparent slope downward, and distinctly none (no slope) upward (Th. Dreiser).
In both languages negative pronouns serve in the sentence as a lexical means to express negation (оформления заперечення). In English their presence is enough to make the sentence a negative one, and that is why the predicate is not put into the negative form (/ know nobody here). In Ukrainian the grammatical and the lexical expression of negation in the sentence are distinctly differentiated. The negative form of the predicate is obligatory even in cases when we have the negative pronoun in the sentence (Яне знаю итого) [5; 67].