- •Contents
- •In English and Ukrainian languages 79
- •Fundamentals
- •1. Basic units of language and speech
- •2. Word as a basic language unit. The structure of words
- •3. The classification of words
- •4. The combinability of words
- •6. Part of speech as one of the main grammatical notions
- •7. Contrastive studies of languages
- •8. Contrastive linguistics as a science and an academic
- •9. Contrastive grammar as a part of contrastive
- •10. Methods of research, used in contrastive studies
- •12. Parts of speech classification in English and Ukrainian languages
- •Chapter 1 Noun as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •1. Noun as a part of speech: general characteristics
- •3. The category of case
- •4. The category of gender
- •5. The category of the names of living beings and lifeless objects
- •IV. Define the type of declension (I, II, III or IV) and the gender of the given Ukrainian nouns. Think up at least five sentences, using some of these nouns, and render these sentences
- •Into English. Do the case and gender characteristics coincide in both languages?
- •V. A) Define to which semantic group of Singularia Tantum nouns belong the following English and Ukrainian nouns:
- •Languages
- •1. Adjective as a part of speech: general characteristics. Grammatical categories of adjective
- •2. Degrees of comparison of adjectives
- •II. Find all the adjectives in the following piece of writing. Classify these adjectives being either qualitative or relative (if possible other type); comment on their grammatical characteristics.
- •III. Identify whether adjectives used in each sentence are in the positive, comparative or superlative form. Define whether each form is synthetic or analytical.
- •Languages
- •1. Numeral as a part of speech: general characteristics
- •2. Grammatical categories of numeral
- •II. Find all the numerals in the following piece of writing. Classify these numerals being either cardinal or ordinal (is pos sible other type); comment on their grammatical characteristics.
- •III. Classify the given numerals being either cardinal or ordinal (if possible other type).
- •IV. Comment on the grammatical characteristics of Ukrainian numerals, using the text given below. Stress on the isomorphic and allomorphic features of English and Ukrainian numerals.
- •Languages
- •1. Pronoun as a part of speech: general characteristics. Grammatical categories of pronoun
- •2. Personal and possessive pronouns
- •3. Reflexive and strengthening pronouns
- •4. Demonstrative pronouns
- •6. Indefinite and negative pronouns
- •7. Allomorphic classes of pronouns in English and
- •II. Underline the pronoun in the following pieces of text, conversation. Identify the type of each pronoun; comment on their grammatical characteristics.
- •1. Verb as a part of speech: general characteristics
- •2. The category of person
- •4. The category of aspect
- •4. The category of aspect
- •5. The category of tense
- •5.1. The Present Tense
- •5.2. The Past Tense
- •5.3. The Future Tense. The tense form "Future-in-the-past" and sequence of tenses of the English language.
- •6. The category of voice
- •7. The category of mood
- •7.1. The Indicative and Imperative moods
- •7.2. The Conditional mood
- •VI. Underline all the verbs in the following pieces of text. Analyze them according to the grammatical meaning they express (tense, aspect, voice, person, number, mood).
- •VI. Underline all the verbs in the following pieces of text. Analyze them according to the grammatical meaning they express (tense, aspect, voice, person, number, mood).
- •Languages
- •2. Infinitive in English and Ukrainian languages
- •4. The English gerund
- •Languages
- •1. Adverb as a part of speech: general characteristics
- •2. Degrees of comparison of adverbs
- •3. Words of the category of state (statives or adlinks)
- •VI. Underline each adverb in the text below and identify its semantic category (qualitative, quantitative, circumstantial, or some other type).
- •VIII. Form adverbs from the following word combination. Think of their English equivalents.
- •Languages
- •1. Preposition as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •3. Particle as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •4. Modal words as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •5. Interjection as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •6. The English article
- •II. Underline prepositions in the sentences/passages below. Comment upon the types of found prepositions.
- •III. Underline conjunctions in the sentences/passages below. Comment upon the types of found conjunctions.
- •V. Underline parenthetic words and word-combinations in the sentences below. Analyze them according to the modal meaning they express in the sentence.
- •1. Sentence as the basic unit of syntax
- •2. The expression of syntactic relations
- •3. The classification of sentences as to their structure
- •1. The subject
- •2. The predicate
- •2.1. The simple predicate
- •3. The object
- •4. The attribute
- •5. The adverbial modifier
- •6. Complex parts of the sentence
- •1. The composite sentence
- •2. The compound sentence with conjunctions
- •2.1. The copulative compound sentence.
- •2.2. The disjunctive compound sentence.
- •2.5. Compound sentences with the meaning of suddenness (складносурядне речения i3 значениям раптовостГ)
- •3. Compound sentences with asyndetically joined clauses (складносурядш речения без сполучникав)
- •1. The subject clause / Шдметове шдрядне речения
- •2. The predicative clause / Присудкове пвдрядне
- •3. The object/objective clause / Шдрядне додаткове
- •4. Attributive clauses / гНдрядш означальш речения
- •5. Adverbial clauses / Пвдрядш обставинш речения
- •5.1. Adverbial clauses of place / шдрядш речения мкщя.
- •5.6. Adverbial clauses of cause / шдрядш реченЩ причини.
- •5.7. Adverbial clauses of condition / пщрядш речения умови.
- •5.9. Adverbial clauses of result / шдрядш речении наелвдку.
- •II. Identify complex sentences in the passages below. Dwell upon the types of clauses in these sentences; describe the means of connection of subordinate clauses to the matrix clause.
- •References
5. The category of the names of living beings and lifeless objects
Some linguists believe that besides the categories of number, case, gender, the noun can also express some other categories. Thus, according to Yu.O. Zhluktenko [5; 46-47], there can be differentiated the category of the names of living beings and lifeless objects (категор1я назв icTOT та неживих предмет1в).
According to their semantics nouns always denote living beings, lifeless objects or abstract notions. This semantic division can be reflected as well in the grammatical structure of the noun. In English some differences in this relation exist only by the usage of the possessive case, characteristic usually of nouns which are the names of living beings. The possessive case though is also used with quite a large number of nouns denoting lifeless objects or abstract notions.
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Nouns can also differ one from the other by the fact that the names of living beings correlate with personal pronouns he, she and the relative pronoun who, whereas the names of lifeless objects correlate with the personal-objective pronoun (особово-предметний) pronoun it and relative pronouns - that, which. Above it was mentioned that these correlation are of the lexical character but not of the grammar one. That is why it can be considered that the category of names of living beings and lifeless objects is not expressed in the grammatical structure of English nouns.
Somehow the other way it happens in Ukrainian where there exist some formal and some grammatical differences between nouns denoting living beings and lifeless objects. These differences are not numerous: nouns of the masculine gender (names of living beings) have the form of the accusative case of both numbers similar with the form of the genitive case (немае батька, бачу батька; не було брата, покликали брата, братгв), and the names of lifeless objects have the form of the accusative case similar with the form of the nominative case (стогтъ cmm, бачу emu; це наш deip, банимо deip, двори). But nouns of the feminine and neuter gender in singular are not differentiated according to this category: all the nouns of the feminine gender in -а, -я have the ending -у, -ю in the accusative case (бачу жтку, чую теню) and nouns of the feminine gender with the final consonant and all the nouns of the neuter gender have the form of the accusative case similar with the form of the nominative case (читаю noeicmb, вгдчиняю вгкно). Only in plural form of nouns of the feminine gender in -а, -я there also is a formal difference between the names of living beings and lifeless objects, e.g.: стоять бачимо жток but лунають nicui, чуемо nicui. The consistent (послщовний) grammatical expression of the category of names of living beings and lifeless objects is pertaining in Ukrainian only to the names of persons. This noun class has also the peculiar vocative case form (особлива клична вщмшкова форма): хлопче, жгнко etc. The names of lifeless objects can be used in the vocative form only in the case of personification, e.g.: О земле, велеттв роди! (П. Тичина). But in general there is also a number of deviations from the consistent expression of this category.
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Discussion questions and exercise tasks? I. Consider your answers to the following:
1. Dwell upon the classes of nouns differer^tjated according to different criteria. Provide examples.
2. State the difference between countable an(j uncountable nouns. Are there any similarities and differences jn these groups of nouns in the contrasted English and Ukrainian langjjages?
Describe the noun as a part of speech ao;cor(jing to the five characteristics. Compare the English noun with th^ Ukrainian noun in regard to their grammatical paradigm, grammatical categories, lombinability potential, ways of functioning in the sentence.
Provide examples of nouns containing typjcai stem-building elements in English and Ukrainian.
Describe the typical oppositions within the system of the English noun and the Ukrainian noun. Sho\y differences and similarities.
Give the general characteristic of grammatical categories of the noun in English and Ukrainian. Are there any differences in their number or ways of their expression?
Dwell upon the category of number m English and in Ukrainian. By way of contrasting show similarities and differences in the forms of number expression in both languages.
What groups of nouns are included by 4singularia tantum" nouns and correspondingly "pluralia tantum" nour|S jn English and in Ukrainian? Are these groups similar in both contested languages or are there any differences?
Give general characteristic of the category 0f case ш tw0 languages under study.
What is the sphere of usage of the Eng}ish possessive case in comparison with the common case?
What is the difference between the "dependent possessive case" and "independent possessive case"? Provide examples.
Describe the meanings expressed by the Ukrainian 7 cases Provide examples.
How is the category of gender expressed in English and in Ukrainian?
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Present the opinions of scholars who differentiate other grammatical categories of a noun besides the categories of number, gender and case. Are there grounded reasons to present such points of view?
Provide the summing up of the main similar and different characteristics of the English noun versus the Ukrainian noun.
II. Recognize different types of nouns. Identify the nouns as belonging to the following types: common or proper noun, countable noun or uncountable noun, concrete or abstract noun, collective noun, etc. Remember that the same noun can represent multiple types and vice versa not all the categories apply to each noun {e.g. philosophy is a common, abstract, uncountable noun).
a) in the English language:
"Your books have sold millions of copies," the young interviewer was saying, (fiction writing)
According to Kant and Laplace, the original mass of gas cooled and began to contract, (academic prose)
3. The minibar was filled with candy, mineral water, decaffeinated soft drinks and dairy products. "These are the kind of munchies which our research found helps sleep," said Jeremy Baka, Hilton spokesman, (newspaper writing)
4. You guys can go to a whole bunch of places and you should not go to New Mexico, (conversation)
*The material is taken from "Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English Workbook" by Susan Conrad, Douglas Biber, Geoffrey Leech, Pearson Education Limited, 2003. - P.21.
b) in the Ukrainian language:
Як свадчить людська icropifl, спочатку смисл слова "толерантшсть" зводився лише до в1ротерпимост! - прийняття (часто з внутршньою духовною боротьбою, негативними емощями) р1зномаштних думок i принцитв р1зних людей в одному сощум1, але згодом виникло й шше трактування цього поняття, водночас i3 юторичними змшами в жито людства. Саме воно якнайкраще вщповщае реал1ям сучасного життя. Це -поважне ставлення до юнування альтернативи в сощальному й побутовому жито людини, вартюшсть само'1 присутност! 1ншого
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i3 самобутшм св1тоглядом, культурою, формою поведшки, життевими ор1ентирами й цшностями. Толерантшсть е i мае бути необхщною якгстю поведшки шдивща початку XXI столптя, бо передбачае воднораз i терпимють до несхожосп iHuioro, i roTOBHicTb прийняти його як piBHOro в середовишд Cboix i Чужих. *The material is taken from the article "Banepifl Нечерда. Толерантшсть // Урок УкраТнсько!'. № 9-10, 2007". - P. 17.
III. Read each sentence, and identify the underlined noun as countable or uncountable. What aspects of each noun's form, meaning or context helped you to decide that it was countable or uncountable? Provide Ukrainian equivalents to the underlined English nouns. Do English and Ukrainian nouns coincide in their characteristics?
1. He spends as much time out of the home as possible (fiction writing).
2. Young people have got to stand up for their rights (conversation).
3. How to achieve a happy love life (newspaper writing).
4. Nevertheless speaking French imposes some order, some uniformity (newspaper writing).
We're not going to war over this, I hope (fiction writing).
For many of us this is a matter of life and death (newspaper writing).
She had to save face with David and Connie knew it (fiction writing).
Andrew even bought a football but hid it from Louise (fiction writing).
"No more sex and violence, Katheryn," joked David (fiction writing).
*The material is taken from "Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English Workbook" by Susan Conrad, Douglas Biber, Geoffrey Leech, Pearson Education Limited, 2003. - P.21-22.