- •Contents
- •In English and Ukrainian languages 79
- •Fundamentals
- •1. Basic units of language and speech
- •2. Word as a basic language unit. The structure of words
- •3. The classification of words
- •4. The combinability of words
- •6. Part of speech as one of the main grammatical notions
- •7. Contrastive studies of languages
- •8. Contrastive linguistics as a science and an academic
- •9. Contrastive grammar as a part of contrastive
- •10. Methods of research, used in contrastive studies
- •12. Parts of speech classification in English and Ukrainian languages
- •Chapter 1 Noun as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •1. Noun as a part of speech: general characteristics
- •3. The category of case
- •4. The category of gender
- •5. The category of the names of living beings and lifeless objects
- •IV. Define the type of declension (I, II, III or IV) and the gender of the given Ukrainian nouns. Think up at least five sentences, using some of these nouns, and render these sentences
- •Into English. Do the case and gender characteristics coincide in both languages?
- •V. A) Define to which semantic group of Singularia Tantum nouns belong the following English and Ukrainian nouns:
- •Languages
- •1. Adjective as a part of speech: general characteristics. Grammatical categories of adjective
- •2. Degrees of comparison of adjectives
- •II. Find all the adjectives in the following piece of writing. Classify these adjectives being either qualitative or relative (if possible other type); comment on their grammatical characteristics.
- •III. Identify whether adjectives used in each sentence are in the positive, comparative or superlative form. Define whether each form is synthetic or analytical.
- •Languages
- •1. Numeral as a part of speech: general characteristics
- •2. Grammatical categories of numeral
- •II. Find all the numerals in the following piece of writing. Classify these numerals being either cardinal or ordinal (is pos sible other type); comment on their grammatical characteristics.
- •III. Classify the given numerals being either cardinal or ordinal (if possible other type).
- •IV. Comment on the grammatical characteristics of Ukrainian numerals, using the text given below. Stress on the isomorphic and allomorphic features of English and Ukrainian numerals.
- •Languages
- •1. Pronoun as a part of speech: general characteristics. Grammatical categories of pronoun
- •2. Personal and possessive pronouns
- •3. Reflexive and strengthening pronouns
- •4. Demonstrative pronouns
- •6. Indefinite and negative pronouns
- •7. Allomorphic classes of pronouns in English and
- •II. Underline the pronoun in the following pieces of text, conversation. Identify the type of each pronoun; comment on their grammatical characteristics.
- •1. Verb as a part of speech: general characteristics
- •2. The category of person
- •4. The category of aspect
- •4. The category of aspect
- •5. The category of tense
- •5.1. The Present Tense
- •5.2. The Past Tense
- •5.3. The Future Tense. The tense form "Future-in-the-past" and sequence of tenses of the English language.
- •6. The category of voice
- •7. The category of mood
- •7.1. The Indicative and Imperative moods
- •7.2. The Conditional mood
- •VI. Underline all the verbs in the following pieces of text. Analyze them according to the grammatical meaning they express (tense, aspect, voice, person, number, mood).
- •VI. Underline all the verbs in the following pieces of text. Analyze them according to the grammatical meaning they express (tense, aspect, voice, person, number, mood).
- •Languages
- •2. Infinitive in English and Ukrainian languages
- •4. The English gerund
- •Languages
- •1. Adverb as a part of speech: general characteristics
- •2. Degrees of comparison of adverbs
- •3. Words of the category of state (statives or adlinks)
- •VI. Underline each adverb in the text below and identify its semantic category (qualitative, quantitative, circumstantial, or some other type).
- •VIII. Form adverbs from the following word combination. Think of their English equivalents.
- •Languages
- •1. Preposition as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •3. Particle as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •4. Modal words as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •5. Interjection as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
- •6. The English article
- •II. Underline prepositions in the sentences/passages below. Comment upon the types of found prepositions.
- •III. Underline conjunctions in the sentences/passages below. Comment upon the types of found conjunctions.
- •V. Underline parenthetic words and word-combinations in the sentences below. Analyze them according to the modal meaning they express in the sentence.
- •1. Sentence as the basic unit of syntax
- •2. The expression of syntactic relations
- •3. The classification of sentences as to their structure
- •1. The subject
- •2. The predicate
- •2.1. The simple predicate
- •3. The object
- •4. The attribute
- •5. The adverbial modifier
- •6. Complex parts of the sentence
- •1. The composite sentence
- •2. The compound sentence with conjunctions
- •2.1. The copulative compound sentence.
- •2.2. The disjunctive compound sentence.
- •2.5. Compound sentences with the meaning of suddenness (складносурядне речения i3 значениям раптовостГ)
- •3. Compound sentences with asyndetically joined clauses (складносурядш речения без сполучникав)
- •1. The subject clause / Шдметове шдрядне речения
- •2. The predicative clause / Присудкове пвдрядне
- •3. The object/objective clause / Шдрядне додаткове
- •4. Attributive clauses / гНдрядш означальш речения
- •5. Adverbial clauses / Пвдрядш обставинш речения
- •5.1. Adverbial clauses of place / шдрядш речения мкщя.
- •5.6. Adverbial clauses of cause / шдрядш реченЩ причини.
- •5.7. Adverbial clauses of condition / пщрядш речения умови.
- •5.9. Adverbial clauses of result / шдрядш речении наелвдку.
- •II. Identify complex sentences in the passages below. Dwell upon the types of clauses in these sentences; describe the means of connection of subordinate clauses to the matrix clause.
- •References
12. Parts of speech classification in English and Ukrainian languages
The grammatical structure of the English and Ukrainian languages has naturally a lot of differences. The Ukrainian language, as well as other eastern Slavonic languages (Russian and Byelorussian) has the typical flexional (флективний)/ synthetic (синтетичний) grammatical structure. It means that grammatical functions of words and their relation with other words in a sentence are expressed by the way of changing the word itself, that is by adding suffixes, with the help of the inner flexion (inner flexion - is differentiating of certain word forms with the help of vowel alternation (чергування голосних), e.g.: лягти - nk), consonant alternation and others. The English language vice versa has mainly analytical structure, at which the grammatical function of a word and its connection with other words are expressed with the help of special formal, or functional words (службове слово) (prepositions, auxiliary words etc) and the word order.
It is worth mentioning that the flexional structure of modern Ukrainian possesses a lot of phenomena which have distinct analytical character, for example, the future tense of verbs of the type буду читати, the conditional mood {читав 6и), building of the comparative degrees of adjective and adverbs (бтьщ визначний, найбтьш едало) etc. Though these analytical features are not dominating ones, they are not frequent enough to determine general character of the language grammatical structure.
It is quite obvious that the general difference of the grammar structure of both compared languages c»uses 4uite a number of particular differences in certain grammatical categories, as well as in features of some parts of speech.
The grammatical expression (грамзтичне оформления) of a word in Ukrainian is fulfilled mainly with the help of morphological means. That is why a word does not need & much the outer means of expression of its lexical and grammatical meaning. In the English language those parts of speech, that have W a larger degree preserved their flexions (for example, the verb), depend less on the outer means, than those parts of speech that have not preserved or almost have not preserved their flexions (for example, the rtoun) and that is why they constantly have to interact with the outer means of expression of their meaning.
This is the reason why the boundaries between separate parts of speech in Ukrainian are more distinct and stable than in English. Possibilities of a word to change one part of speech into another are far less common in Ukrainian than in Ertglish. Such a conversion happens mainly in the sphere of names (suI>stantivation of adjectives) (compare: вартовий, хворий). Strengthening °f me word in the function of the new part of speech is carried out very gradually, as a consequence of long-time/ durable usage.
In the English language morphologic»1 expression of a word is much poorer, that is why syntactic expressi°n °f words gains a considerable weight in it. This is the rЈason why conversion -transferring of a word from one part of sp^ecn into ще other as the morphologic-syntactic way of word-formatiDn belongs here to one of the most productive means of vocabidary enrichment. As a consequence, separate parts of speech do not nave in English such distinct boundaries as in Ukrainian [5; 36- 311
Parts of speech. The English at"* Ukrainian languages basically have a similar system of parts of speech. In both languages we can find the following parts of spe<?ch: ') noun (1менник); 2) adjective (прикметник); 3) numeral (числшник); 4) pronoun (займенник); 5) verb (д1еслово); 6) advert? (прислшник); 7) modal words (модальна слова), 8) preposition (прийменник); 9) conjunction (сполучник), 10) particle (частка); 11) interjection (вигук).
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The distinctive feature of the English language in comparison with the Ukrainian language is the availability of such a part of speech as article that is the 12-th part of speech. Though according to B. Khaimovich and B. Rogovskaya, it is possible to distinguish not 12 but 14 parts of speech in English, namely: 1) nouns, 2) adjectives, 3) pronouns, 4) numerals, 5) verbs, 6) adverbs, 7) adlinks (statives or words of the category of state), 8) modal words (modals), 9) prepositions, 10) conjunctions, 11) particles, 12) interjections, 13) articles, 14) response words (yes, no) [24].
Different is not only the number of parts of speech but also the value attached to them in different languages. For example, in the book "Modern Ukrainian Language" edited by a well-known Ukrainian linguist Olexandr Danylovych Ponomariv [15; 113] it is stated that the central place in the grammar structure of Ukrainian is taken by a noun with a verb (a view shared by I.R.Vykhovanets'). An adjective and an adverb are considered to be peripheral parts of speech, and a pronoun and a numeral are taken beyond the notion of parts of speech. Although all these word classes are named conventionally as parts of speech or notional words (повнозначш слова) by modern linguistics. Prepositions, conjunctions, particles and link-words (зв'язки) are devoid of features possessed by parts of speech. They are called function words or particles of speech (службов1 слова або частей мови) whose purpose of existing is purely syntactical and which function as analytical syntactic morphemes. They are deprived of the independent naming function. They do not differentiate between lexical and grammatical meanings. Any relations can be expressed by particles of speech not on their own but only in combination with notional parts of speech or syntactic structures: брат i сестра, хоч бы не затзнитися, були задоволет. An interjection is considered separately: it belongs neither to parts of speech, nor to morphemes, but is related to the whole sentence. So the classification of words into parts of speech, particles of speech and interjections is treated on the basis of a morpheme, a notional word and a sentence. Besides modal words (considered, for example, by Yu.O. Zhluktenko as a part of speech also in Ukrainian) as well as
link-words are studied within the boundaries of syntax, and the category of state or stative is studied as a separate group within an adverb as a part of speech.
Many linguists point out the difference between such parts of speech as nouns or verbs, on the one hand, and prepositions or conjunctions, on the other.
For instance, B. Ilyish in his book "The structure of modern English" [8; 35] comes up with the idea that only prepositions and conjunctions can be treated as functional parts of speech.
V.V. Vinogradov thinks that only the noun, the adjective, the pronoun, the numeral, the verb, the adverb and the category of state in the Russian language may be considered parts of speech, since these words "can fulfill the naming function". Besides parts of speech he distinguishes 4 particles of speech: 1) particles proper, 2) linking particles, 3) prepositions, 4) conjunctions.
Other Russian linguists V. Zhigadlo, I. Ivanova, L.Iofic name prepositions, conjunctions, particles and articles as functional parts of speech distinct from notional parts of speech. Charles Fries ("The Structure of English") points out 4 classes of words called parts of speech and 15 groups of words called function words [24; 39].
According to B. Khaimovich and B. Rogovskaya function words can be called semi-notional. The difference between notional and semi-notional parts of speech is to some extent reflected in the phenomenon of substitution. Notional words usually have substitutes - other words with much more general meanings which are used to replace them in certain environments, e.g. nouns can be replaced by pronouns etc. The lexical meaning of semi-notional words is usually so weak and general that these words can hardly be replaced. Thus, prepositions, conjunctions, articles and particles may be regarded as semi-notional parts of speech when contrasted with notional parts of speech [24; 38-41].
So, as it is obvious from the mentioned above, the question, what parts of speech should be treated as functional or function and whether they are parts or only particles of speech, is still a controversial point in the theory of grammar.
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Discussion questions and exercise tasks: I. Consider your answers to the following:
State the difference between the notions "language" and "speech".
Name the basic units of language and speech. Give their definitions.
3. Determine the difference between "paradigmatic" and "syntagmatic relations".
Define the term "grammar". What are considered to be the subfields of grammar? What types of grammar can be mentioned?
What is meant by a word structure as a basic language unit?
In what way do the morphemes table- and -s as constituent parts of the word tables differ? What is the difference between "grammatical" and "lexical" morphemes? Are there any other types of morphemes?
Name the difference between the "analytical" and "synthetic" forms of a word? Provide examples.
What is the stem of a word? What types of stems can be distinguished according to their structure? Provide examples.
9. Exemplify the difference between such notions as "grammeme" and "lexeme".
Define the term "grammatical opposition". What are considered to be the "members of the opposition"?
What is "grammatical category"? Provide examples of grammatical categories in English and Ukrainian languages.
What is the "combinability" of a word? What types of combinability can be mentioned? Provide examples.
Define the term "part of speech". Name the features characterizing a part of speech as a class of lexemes.
14. Mention linguistic disciplines which deal with the contrastive study of a language. State the difference between them.
Specify the difference between the contrastive typology and contrastive linguistics.
What are language universale? Provide examples.
17. What is the difference between "isomorphic" and "allomorphic features"? Provide examples considering English and Ukrainian languages.
How was contrastive linguistics shaped as a linguistic discipline? Mention the subject matter and main tasks of contrastive linguistics.
Mention the linguists who contributed to the development of contrastive linguistics as a linguistic research direction.
Specify the subject matter and the tasks of contrastive grammar as a subfield of contrastive linguistics.
According to what aspects can grammatical phenomena of different languages be contrasted?
Describe the methods used in contrastive language studies.
Specify the nature of "contrastive analysis" method.
24. What is meant by the term "tertium comparationis" in contrastive linguistics?
25. Dwell upon the issue of the parts of speech differentiation in different languages.
State the difference between "notional" and "functional" parts of speech.
Enumerate the parts of speech in the English and Ukrainian languages; point out towards similarities and differences. Provide examples of each part of speech in Ukrainian and in English.
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