The globe grid

Maps are geographers' primary tools of spatial analysis. All spatial analysis starts with locations, and all locations are related to the global grid of latitude and longitude. Since these lines of reference are drawn upon the spherical earth, their projection onto a map distorts their grid relationships. The extent of variance between the globe grid and a map grid helps tell us the kind and degree of distortion the map will contain.

The key reference points in the grid system are the north and south poles and the equator, which are given in nature, and the prime meridian.which is agreed upon by cartographers. Because a circle contains 360 degrees, the distance between the poles is 180 degrees and between the equator and each pole, 90 degrees. Latitude measures distance north and south of the equator (0°), and parallels of latitude run due east-west. Longitude is the angular distance east or west of the prime meridian and is depicted by north-south lines (called meridians) that converge at the poles. The properties of the globe grid the mapmaker tries to retain and the map user should look for are as follows:

1. All meridians are of equal length, each is one half the length of the equator.

2. All meridians converge at the poles and are true north-south lines.

3. All lines of latitude (parallels) are parallel to the equator and to each other.

4. Parallels decrease in length as one nears the polee.

5. Meridians and parallels intersect at right angles.

6. The scale on the surface of the globe is everywhere the same in every direction.

A s s i g n m e n t s

I. Comprehension questions:

1.What does the spatial analysis start with? 2. Why does a map distort grid relationships? 3. What are the key reference points in the grid system? 4. What is the distance between the poles? 5. What is the distance between the pole and the equator? 6. Where do meridians converge? 7. Where do parallels decrease?

2. Find a sentence describing the intersection of meridian and parallels.

3. Give a short summary of the text.

Lesson 6.

Тext A. Surveying and drafting instruments

1. Read and memorize the following words:

aid (v) - допомагати

attach – прикріпляти, приєднувати

bubble - бульбашка

cast – виливати, лити

chiefly - головний чином

draft (v) - креслити

estimate (v) – оцінювати

etching - травлення на металі

extend - розтягати

extensible - розтяжний

extension - розтягування

face (n) - поверхня

fasten - прикріплювати

fit (v) – обладнати

graduate (v) - градуювати

graduation - градуювання,калібровка

lessen - зменшувати

level (n)(v) - нівелір, нівелювати

levelman - нівелювальник

mark (v) – позначати

mend - лагодити, ремонтувати

mount (v) –встановлювати

paint (v) - фарбувати

permanently - постійно

pull (n) - тяга, натягування

read (v) – показувати, знімати

rest (v) – базуватися, спиратися

rigidly - жорстко

rivet (n,v) - заклепка,клепати

rod - рейка

rodman - реєчник

section - секція

self-reading - самозчитуючий

serve (v) - служити

stand (v) -- вистояти, витрмати

support (n) – підставка

swing (v) – розкачуватись

take out - виймати

target - повзунок

telescope - труба теодоліту

the former - попередній

the latter - останній

thermometer - термометр

thick- товстий

throughout – всюди, скрізь

vernier – вернієр

II. Expressions for the text comprehension:

brass rivet - латунна заклепка

broken tape – зломана стрічка, рулетка

definite height - певна висота

dumpy-level - глухий нівелір

horizontal bar - горизонтальний стрижень, полоса

levelling screw - підйомний гвинт

liability of kinking - схильність до перекручення, згину

line of sight - лінія візування

movable target - пересувний повзунок

notched sleeves - рукава з бороздками

rougher usage - грубіше використання

spirit level - спиртовий рівень

spring balance - динамометр

steel ribbon - стальна стрічка

steel tape - стальна стрічка, рулетка

temperature correction - корегування температури

Y-level - нівелір з трубою, що перекладається

Y-shaped support – У – подібна підставка

Grammar Focus

*-…Steel tapes fitted with a thermometer … are used in city surveying.

Past Participle (Participle 11)

(дієприкметник минулого часу)

У стандартних дієслів утворюється за допомогою закінчення – ed, у нестандартних дієслів іншими шляхами: чергуванням голосної , приголосної основи та інш. Дієприкметник минулого часу в реченні може бути:

7. означенням (перед іменником або після нього в складі дієприкметникового звороту): the graduated tape – градуйована стрічка.

Перекладається дієприкметником чи прикметником.

A self-reading rod has graduations painted on its face. – Самозчитуюча рейка має градуювання, що нанесені фарбою на її поверхні.

Часто перекладається підрядним означальним реченням.

8. частиною присудка (в пасивному стані або в доконаних часах):

Most rods are made of two or more sections. – Більшість рейок зроблені з двох або більше секцій.

9. обставиною (часто з сполучниками when, while):

When asked whether he intended to return soon he replied that he would be away for 3 months. – Коли його запитали, чи він має намір швидко повернутись, він відповів, що його не буде 3 місяці.

Steel tapes fitted with a thermometer … are used in city surveying. – Стальні стрічки, обладнані термометром, використовуються в міських зйомках.

Surveying and drafting instruments

Tapes. Steel tapes are commonly 25, 50, 75, 100, 200. 300 or 500 ft. long to 100 ft.. They are usually thin steel ribbons, the longer tapes being thicker and narrower to lessen liability of kinking and to stand rougher usage. The lighter tapes are graduated throughout in feet, tenths and hundredths, the heavier ones are usually marked by notched sleeves, etchings or brass rivets at every 1-, 5-, 10-, or 20-ft. point with the last foot on each end divided into tenths or hundredths. When 5, 10 or 20-ft. points alone are marked the last 5, 10, or 20-ft is usually graduated at every foot.

Steel tapes fitted with a thermometer for temperature corrections and with a spring balance for measuring the amount of pull are used chiefly in city surveying. Broken tapes can be mended by riveting on the back of a tape a piece of the old tape of the same width.

Pocket steel tapes from 3 ft. up are for accurate measuring when long tapes, marked only at the 5, 10, or 20-ft. points are used.

Levelling rods. Levelling rods are of two types, target and self-reading; the former is read by a rodman, the latter by a levelmen. The commonest forms of target rods are the Boston, the New York and the Philadelphia; the Philadelphia can be used also as a self-reading rod. Most rods are made of two or more sections, so that they may be extended. The target of the Boston rod is permanently fastened to one strip of the rod. The other target rods are always used right-side up and have movable targets. The New York rod has a vernier for reading to a thousandth of a foot; most Philadelphia rods have a scale resembling a vernier, which gives the hundredths and makes it easy to estimate thousandths, thus serving every purpose of a vernier. All these rods are usually 6 or 7.5 ft. long and are extensible for readings up to 11 or 13 ft. They are also made 3 ft. long, with extension to 5 ft. and 5 ft. long with extension to 9 ft. for use underground.

A self-reading rod has graduations (usually every tenth of a foot) painted on its face, so that it can be read through a telescope by the levelman. The figures on the face of the rod are usually of a definite height (0.06 or 0.08 ft.) and of a thickness of 0.01 or 0.02 ft., thus aiding the levelman to estimate hundredths of a foot or even closer.

Engineer's level is a telescope to which a delicate spirit level is attached parallel to the line of sight, so that when the bubble is in the centre, the line of sight is horizontal. The two common types are the Y- and dumpy-levels. In both the telescope is mounted on a vertical axis about which the telescope can swing horizontally and is levelled by 4 levelling screws.

The Y-level has its spirit level attached to the telescope which rests in two Y-shaped supports fastened to a horizontal bar rigidly connected to a vertical axis.The telescope can be taken out of the Ys, turned end for end.

The dumpy-level has its vertical axis, a horizontal bar and supports for the telescope all cast in one piece to which a spirit level is attached. The dumpy-level will stand much rougher use than Y-level.

E x e r c i s e s

I. Wordbuilding:

a) give derivatives of:

to move, to extend, to use, to graduate, to survey, to equip

b) what are the following words composed of:

a levelman, a rodman, self-reading, underground

c) find suffixes of:

commonest, movable, permanently, thousandth, usually, extensible graduation, thickness, correction

d) form adverbs from adjectives:

common, usual, chief, large, exact, accurate, local

I1.Read the following technical abbreviations and fractions:

Ft., Fig., In., 0.1, 0.01, 0.05, 2.06,1/2, 2/3. I 1/2. 4/5. ¼

I11. Find participles II in the text and define their functions.

IV. Write out of the text word-combinations of three components and translate them.

V.Find the missing word from the text:

10. The New York rod has a ….. for reading. 2. Steel tapes are chiefly used in …..

11. The telescope is mounted on …..

VI. Construct the sentence to illustrate the difference between the dumpy-level and Y-level.

VII. Say what advantages of magnetic observatories are.

VIII. Comprehension questions;

I, How long are commonly steel tapes? 2. Why are longer tapes thicker? 3. How are the lighter tapes graduated? 4. Why are steel tapes fitted with a thermometer? 5.What is a spring balance used for in steel tapes?6. How can broken tapes be mended? 7. How long are pocket steel tapes? 8. What types of levelling rods do you know? 9. Why are levelling rods made of two or more sections? 10. What graduations has a self-reading rod? I1. What are the commonest types of the engineer's level?

IX. Annotate the paragraph about levelling rods.

X. Speak about:

a) lighter and heavier steel tapes; b) pocket steel tapes,c) a self-reading levelling rod; d) an engineer's level.