12. Word stress in English.

Ss - special emphasis, given to syl-s in words. In speech the actual prom-ce of a s-le is not only the result of stress. Ss is variable - any syl-le of a polys-c word can carry the main stress. Signals: pitch of voice (level), sonority of sound (vowel quality: strong, weak; stressed syl-s have strong vs - pot, Tom, office, odd, man, uns-ed - weak: potato, official, addition, woman), duration in time (length - syl-s are extra long when they are prominant) - together they make syl-s sound louder. Degrees of ss: primary, secondary (partial), weak. Ss is the comb-n of factors.

Ss may be semantically contrasted (verb - noun: contrast, present). Modify of ss: photogragh-photographer-photographic).

Rules: 1) 'front weight' in nouns & adj-s (have ss on the 1-st syl-le); 2) 2 & 3-syl-le words have a prefix (not stressed), majority are verbs; 3 ) ws with suf-s (unstr-ed); 4) certain suf-s cause the syl-le to be st-ed:-ive,-ient,-iant,-ial,-ion,-ic,-ous, -ish,-ify,-ible; 5)-able - doesn't change the stress; 6) in polys-c w-ds certain suf-s cause the ss to be placed on the 4-th syl-le fr. the end --ary,-ator, alimony, literacy, inventory; 7) in compound w-ds - singlestressed - reading-room, music-hall; but adj-es & verbs - 2-stressed - well-bred, give in . 

13. Pronunciation. Phonemic and phonetic transcription. The Phonemic Chart.

Transcription - system of phonetic notations, a set of symbols representing speech sounds.

It can be:

Broad / phonemic / - gives the special symbol of the phonemes of the language.

Narrow [allophonic] - gives the special symbols for allophonic feature. 

14. The Reform Movement in the language teaching and the foundation of the ipa.

Methods in language teaching: grammatical-translation; direct; by 1850 the situation changed: focus on oral communication -> situational l-ge teaching; audiolingualism; communic.l-ge teaching (Alexander); silent way; community l-ge teaching; total physical response (for children); suggestopedia. So there was a great shift from gr.tr. to the oral communicative. Now - a collectical method.

Revolutioners, who denied gr-tr method: Marcel - invented the oral md, following the way how the children heard the language; Prendergast - to learn a language you need a context, suggested the idea of structural patterns; Gouin - anything you say must be facilitated by movements. They started looking for the ways of describing the language. Henry Sweet, Wilhelm Vietor, Paul Passy. International Phonetic Association (1886 in Paris by Paul Passy):

The tasks:

1.the study of the spoken language;

2.ph-c training in order to establish good pron-n habits;

3.the use of conversational texts & dialogues (not literary), introduction of idioms;

4. inductive approach to the learning grammar;

5. the use of direct method - teaching new meanings through establishing associations in the target language. The Association introduces International Phonetic Alphabet (1886). 

15. Approaches to the intonation study. Functions of intonation. Stylistic use of intonation.

The music of a l-ge. Is very imp-t, cause it may effect the meaning. How we say. The segments of spoken l-ge are vs & cs - produce syl-s, ws, s-ces - the verbal aspect of speech. We articulate them, a voise effect, extending over more than one segment - suprasegmental analysis. In - a complex unity of non-seg-l or prosodic features of speech (do not exist in isolation). Term prosody (acoustic properties of the speech, the el-s of pr-dy are derived from the acoustic ch-s of speechis wider than in-n: just the changes in the pitch. 

Approaches: 1) contour analysis (H. Sweet, D. Jones, Palmer, J.O 'Conner; the smallest unit to which ling-c meaning can be attached is a tone-group (sense-group), based: in- n consists of basic functional blocks; traditional & widely used); 2) gram-l (Halliday; the main unit of In - clause; based on syntactical fn of in-n; tied with gram.categories: tonality - marks the bg & the end of a tone group; tonicity - marks the focal point of an in-n group; tones - may be primary or sec-ry; 3) functional (O'Conner, Alexander; based on discovering the links of the voice of the speeker - his attitude); 4) contextual (D. Brazil, Barbara Bradford; context.signif-ce of In, meanings are like surprise, irony are features of particular context, major components - prom-ce, tone, key (pitch levels )-high \ low key inf-n, termination (result). 

Functions of In: 1) emotional; 2) grammatical (iden-n of clauses, disj, q-ns); 3) inform-al (what is new, what is already known); 4) textual (paragraghs of In on radio and 5) psychological (to organize l-ge into unites - more easily perceived & memorized; 6) indexical (markers of a personal identity, belonging to dif-t occupations & social groups.

Stylistic use of int-n. Style - different manner of non-verbal expression. The choice of a speech style is situationally determined. Any act of verb.com-n is changed by certain int-nal peculiarities which depend on such extra-ling-c factors (effect the situation) as: 1) the purpose of com-n; 2) social setting of curc-s 3) social identity of the speeker; 4) individual speech habits; 5) em-nal state of the speeker. An int-l style - a sm of interrelated int-nal means, which is used in a certain social spere and serves the def-te aim of com-n.

Clas-n by Sh.Bally: 1) highly elevated style; 2) elaborate pron-n (carefully), and 3) slow coll.pron-n; 4) fluent coll.pron-n. Clas-n by Sokolova, Gintovt, Kanter: 1) inform-al - formal; radio, press; 2) scientific - accad.; 3) declamatory; 4) publicific; 5) conversational. Inform-n: intellectual, emotional, volitional.