9.Gender

The fact is, the category of gender in English differs from the category of gender in many other languages, for example, in Russian, in French or in German. The category of gender linguistically may be either meaningful (or, natural), rendering the actual sex-based features of the referents, or formal (arbitrary). In English gender is a meaningful category for the whole class of the nouns. It is realized through obligatory correspondence of every noun with the 3rd person singular pronouns - he, she, or it: man – he, woman – she, tree, dog – it.

The category of gender is formed by two oppositions organized hierarchically. The first opposition is general and opposes human, or person nouns, distinguishing masculine and feminine gender (man – he, woman – she) and all the other, non-human, non-person nouns, belonging to the neuter gender (tree, dog – it). The second opposition is formed by the human nouns only: on the lower level of the opposition the nouns of masculine gender and of feminine gender are opposed.

Gender+ Person nouns ,Non-person nouns (tree - it)

+Feminine nouns (woman - she) Masculine nouns (man -he)

Gender is a constant feature category: it is expressed not through variable forms of words, but through nounal classification; each noun belongs to only one of the three genders.

10.Adjectives.The adjective expresses the categorial meaning of property of a substance, e.g.: hard work. That means that semantically the adjective is a bound word of partial nominative value: it can not be used without a word denoting the substance which it characterizes. When the adjective is used independently it is substantivized, i.e. it acquires certain features of a noun.Adjectives are distinguished by a specific combinability with the nouns which they modify, with link verbs and with modifying adverbs. The functions performed by the adjective correlate with their combinability: when combined with nouns, adjectives perform the function of an attribute (either in preposition to the noun modified or in post-position if accompanied by adjuncts), e.g.: a suspicious man; a man suspicious of his wife; when combined with link verbs they perform the function of a predicative (part of a compound nominal predicate), e.g.: The man was very suspicious of his wife.Formally, adjectives are characterized by a specific set of word-building affixes, e.g.: hopeful, flawless, bluish, famous, decorative, accurate, inaccurate, basic, etc.Adjectives are traditionally divided on the basis of their semantics into two grammatically relevant subclasses: qualitative and relative adjectives. Qualitative adjectives denote the qualities of objects as such, e.g.: red, long, beautiful, etc. Relative adjectives denote qualities of objects in relation to other objects; such adjectives are usually derived from nouns, e.g.: wood – wooden, ice – icy, etc.Statives. Among the words denoting substantive properties there is a set of words denoting states that are used predominantly in the predicative function and are united by a common formal mark, the prefix ‘a-’, e.g.: afraid, afire, alike, etc. (cf.: the suffix ‘-o’ in Russian - холодно, тепло, весело, etc.) Their part of speech status is rather problematic. Traditionally they are referred to as “predicative adjectives”The category of comparison expresses the quantitative characteristics of the quality rendered by the adjective. Three forms constitute this category: the positive degree, the comparative degree, and the superlative degree forms of the adjective. The basic form, known as the positive degree, has no special formal mark, e.g.: tall, beautiful; the comparative degree is marked by two kinds of forms; synthetical forms with the suffix “-er” and analytical forms with the auxiliary word more, e.g.: taller, more beautiful; the superlative degree is also formed either synthetically with the help of the grammatical suffix “-est”, or analytically with the help of the auxiliary word most, e.g.: tallest, most beautiful. The synthetic and analytical degrees stand in complementary distribution to each other, their choice is determined by syllabo-phonetic forms of adjectives. Also, there are suppletive forms of the degrees of comparison, e.g.: bad – worse – worst

11.Pronoun is a pro-form that substitutes for a noun (or noun phrase) with or without a determiner, such as you and they in English.

Pronoun is a very heterogeneous part of speech because different types of pronouns have quite different features.

Personal (N) – I, you, he, they; have number, nominative & objective case;

Possessive (A) – my, his, their; have number, nominative & possessive case; mine, their - absolute form.

Reflexive (N, particle) – myself; have number, have not case;

Reciprocal (N) – взаимовозврат. Each other, one another; have not number, have not case;

Demonstrative (art) – this, that, these, those; have number, have not case;

Indefinite (N) – неопр. Any, some (-thing); have not number, have case;

Interrogative (N) – who, which, what; have not number, have not case (exception “whom”);

Negative (N) – nothing, nobody; have not number, have case;

Relative (A,cj) - who, which, what; have not number, have not case (exception “whom”);

Quantitative (N,A) – some, much, few; have not number, have not case.

These types tend to different parts of speech. At the same time in all traditional grammars such words are referred to the same part of speech. There are 2 reasons for it: the first is type of meaning. It is relative in all functional words but we can’t really refer pronouns to such words. Functional words cannot be sentence part, but pronouns can. Pronouns have a specific quality, It is deictic (указание на что то) by nature. It means that the meaning of pronoun depends on a situation. They never name but they point at. The second reason is that all pronouns fulfill the same function substitution.