2. Abstract

An abstract is a brief summary of a research article, thesis, review, or any in-depth analysis of a particular subject or discipline, and is often used to help the reader quickly ascertain the paper's purpose. When used, an abstract always appears at the beginning of a work. It summarizes the purpose, scope, methods used, the results, conclusions, and any recommendations. Abstract length varies by discipline and publisher requirements. Typical length ranges from 100 to 500 words, but very rarely more than a page. Abstracts are typically sectioned logically as an overview of what appears in the paper, with any of the following subheadings: Background, Introduction, Objectives, Methods, Results, Conclusions. Abstracts in which these subheadings are explicitly given are often called structured abstracts by publishers. In articles that follow the IMRAD (Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion) pattern structured abstract style is the norm. Abstracts that comprise one paragraph with no explicit subheadings are often called unstructured abstracts by publishers. They are often appropriate for review articles that don't follow the IMRAD pattern within their bodies.

When writing an abstract

• use mainly the Present Simple tense

• do not use

- abbreviations,

- citations or references,

- the first person singular

- illustrations, detailed explonations, tables and the like.

Sample abstract

Charles S. Peirce's article, "The Fixation of Belief (1877), asserts that humans have psychological and social mechanisms designed to protect and cement (or "fix") our beliefs. Peirce backs this claim up with descriptions of four methods of fixing belief, pointing out the effectiveness and potential weaknesses of each method Peirce's purpose is to point out the ways that people commonly establish their belief system in order to jolt the awareness of the reader into considering how their own belief system may the product of such methods and to consider what Peirce calls "the method of science" as a progressive alternative to the other three. Given the technical language used in the article, Peirce is writing to an well-educated audience with some knowledge of philosophy and history and a willingness to other ways of thinking.

Examples of abstracts

Luís F. Costa and Huw David Dixon

Fiscal Policy under Imperfect Competition with Flexible Prices: An Overview and Survey

ABSTRACT

This paper surveys the link between imperfect competition and the effects of fiscal policy on output, employment and welfare. We examine static and dynamic models, with and without entry under a variety of assumptions using a common analytical framework. We find that in general there is a robust relationship between the fiscal multiplier and welfare, the tantalizing possibility of Pareto improving fiscal policy is much more elusive. In general, the mechanisms are supply side, and so welfare improving policy, whilst possible, is not a general result.

***

Karl Aiginger

The Great Recession versus the Great Depression: Stylized Facts on Siblings That Were Given Different Foster Parents

ABSTRACT

This paper compares the depth of the recent crisis and the Great Depression. We use a new data set to compare the drop in activity in the industrialized countries for seven activity indicators. This is done under the assumption that the recent crisis leveled off in mid-2009 for production and will do so for unemployment in 2010. Our data indicate that the recent crisis indeed had the potential to be another Great Depression, as shown by the speed and simultaneity of the decline in the first nine months. However, if we assume that a large second dip can be avoided, the drop in all indicators will have been smaller than during the Great Depression. This holds true specifically for GDP, employment and prices, and least for manufacturing output. The difference in the depth in the crises concurs with differences in policy reaction. This time monetary policy and fiscal policy were applied courageously, speedily and partly internationally coordinated. During the Great Depression for several years fiscal policy tried to stabilize budgets instead of aggregate demand, and either monetary policy was not applied or was rather ineffective insofar as deflation turned lower nominal interest rates into higher real rates. Only future research will be able to prove the exact impact of economic policy, but the current tentative conclusion is that economic policy prevented the recent crisis from developing into a second Great Depression. This is also a partial vindication for economists. The majority of them might not have been able to predict the crisis, but the science did learn its lesson from the Great Depression and was able to give decent policy advice to at least limit the depth of the recent crisis.

***

Real Business Cycle Theory and the Great Depression: The Abandonment of the Abstentionist Viewpoint

Michel De Vroey and Luca Pensieroso

The B.E. Journal of Macroeconomics, 2006, vol. contributions.6, issue 1

ABSTRACT:

Is the Great Depression amenable to real business cycle theory? In the 1970s and 1980s Lucas and Prescott took an abstentionist stance. They maintained that, because of its exceptional character, an explanation of the Great Depression was beyond the grasp of the equilibrium approach to the business cycle. However, while Lucas stuck to this view, Prescott changed his mind at the end of the 1990s, breaking his earlier self-imposed restraint. In this paper we document this evolution of opinion and produce a first assessment of real business cycle models of the Great Depression. We claim that the fact of having constructed an equilibrium model of the Great Depression constitutes a methodological breakthrough. However, as far as substance is concerned, we argue that the contribution of real business cycle literature on the Great Depression is slim, and does not gain the upper hand over the work of economic historians.

Keywords: great depression; new classical macroeconomics; real business cycle theory; equilibrium; unemployment.

3. О правилах создания рефератов и аннотаций на русском языке смотрите

1. В.В. Алимов. Теория перевода. Перевод в сфере профессиональной коммуникации.: Учебное пособие. Изд. 2-е, испр. – М., Едиториал УРСС, 2004. – 160с.

2. Культура устной и письменной речи делового человека: Справочник. Практикум. – 16-е изд. - М.: Флинта: Наука, 2011.- 320 с.

APPENDIX 2

Graphs, Pictures and Diagrams : Description

The description must be a minimum of 150 words and it is recommended that you spend no longer than 20 minutes on this.

Content and task types

You have to write about the information shown, describing the main features, trends or differences. You have to refer closely to the diagram and, where relevant, illustrate your main points with figures. You are not required to give any explanation for the data, but have to describe only the information given in the task.

Task types may involve describing information from

• a graph, chart or table

• a flow chart or process diagram

• a plan or map

• a diagram showing how something works

• a diagram showing or comparing objects

• a set of small diagrams

Here are some useful vocabulary units to describe figures

• To go up, to increase, to rise, to climb, to improve (dramatically, markededly, significantly, slightly)

• An increase, a rise, a climb, an improvement (dramatic, marked, significant, slight)

• To go down, to decrease, to fall, to decline, to deteriorate (dramatically, markededly, significantly, slightly)

• A decrease, a fall, a decline, a deterioration (dramatic, marked, significant, slight)

• To recover, to get better / a recovery, an upturn

• To get worse, aggreviate / a downturn

• To level out, to stabilize, to stay the same / levelling out

• To reach a peak, to reach a maximum to peak / a peak

• To reach a low point, to hit bottom / trough

• To undulate, to fluctuate / an undulation, a fluctuation

Some more structures

• The graph shows that…started climbing steadily, peaking at…, and flattened out at a level of…

• According to the diagram, the number of…rose sharply between…and…, before plunging back down to its original level.

• The graphs show a plateau at the level of…

• The graphs show a plateau at the level of…

• Within the picture is contained…

• The diagram depicts that there were more…than…between…and…

• This diagram represents…and therefore shows that…

• The shape of the graph demonstrates that…

• There is a clearly defined pattern to the graph, and this can be taken to mean that…

• The graph can thus be used to predict…

• One can interpret the graph in several ways. Firstly it shows…

Study the samples below and memorise the description.