Переклад полісемічних (неоднозначних) слів

Неоднозначні слова мають кілька перекладних відповідників згідно із кількістю їхніх значень (лексико-семантичних варіантів). Відповідники неоднозначного слова називаються варіантними відповідниками. Під варіантним відповідником розуміється один із можливих варіантів перекладу слова (терміну). Варіантний відповідник передає, як правило, якесь одне значення слова вихідної мови, тобто кожний варіантний відповідник є перекладним еквівалентом якогось одного лексико-семантичного варіанта (ЛСВ) багатозначного слова. Так, наприклад, для слова test у функції іменника, словник дає: випробування, критерій, дослідження, проба, аналіз, реакція, реактив, контрольна робота.

Варіантні відповідники можуть бути зафіксовані в перекладних словниках і тоді вони називаються словниковими варіантними відповідниками. Але перекладачі не завжди мають справу тільки із словниковими варіантними відповідниками - трапляється так, що словники не містять деяких відповідників неоднозначного слова або ж словникові варіантні відповідники певного слова взагалі не зафіксовані в словниках.

З точки зору практики перекладу доцільно розрізняти випадки, коли варіантні відповідники слова подано в словнику та коли вони в словниках відсутні частково або повністю. У першому випадку перекладач вирішує завдання вибору одного адекватного в даному контексті варіантного відповідника слова оригінала з кількох, поданих в словнику. Для цього перекладач повинний точно визначити ЛСВ слова (тобто, в якому значенні вжито дане слово), після чого підібрати належний варіантний відповідник з тих, що наведені в словнику.

Очевидно, що вибір найвідповіднішого значення може бути зроблений лише на основі контексту, тобто закінченого в смисловому відношенні уривку письмової мови, в якому знаходиться слово, що перекладається.

Для розкриття значення англійського слова зазвичай буває достатньо вузького контексту, тобто найближчого лексичного оточення слова в межах одного речення.

The test offered to the students contained several sentences – Контрольна робота, запропонована студентам, містила декілька речень.

This theory didn’t stand the test of time – Ця теорія не витримала випробування часом.

У тих випадках, коли варіантні відповідники певного слова вихідної мови в словниках відсутні, перекладач спочатку також повинний точно визначити, в якому значенні вжито багатозначне слово, а потім вже перекласти його одним із способів перекладу слів.

Варіантні відповідники - це найпоширеніший вид перекладних відповідників, оскільки більшість слів (в тому числі значна кількість термінів) є неоднозначними, отже потребують при перекладі вибору або утворення відповідника лексико-семантичного варіанту слова (терміна).

Одним з основних завдань перекладача при роботі над англійським текстом є пошук в українській мові відповідника для англійських слів, що перекладаються.

Практичні завдання:

Завдання 1. Перекладіть речення, звертаючи увагу на вибір адекватного способу перекладу фразеологізмів:

1. But evidence indicates that it is not the whole story. 2. Then, in April of that year, George P. Smoot and his colleagues at Berkeley released evidence that might fill this gap in the theory. 3. In order that realism may be seen in a more neutral light, this section presents a different, counterbalancing, perspective. 4. Yet we should also keep in mind that all predictions in these matters remain highly speculative, not to say hazardous. 5. To begin with, the concept of divergence, taken in isolation and carried to its logical conclusion, is upon closer examination not altogether different from the old idea. 6. But thought these matters are of much interest, they do not so far throw any light at all on our problem. 7. Let us make some general comments on these three classes, leaving them still fairly rough. 8. This line of argument completely misses the point. 9. Lastly we may ask - and here I must let come of my cats on the table - does this notion apply in all cases? 10. There is no short cut to expounding simply the full complexity of the situation which does not exactly fit any common classification. 11. The emphasized phrase begs the question which divides conceptualists and realists, since an empirical inquiry is one based on information supplied by the senses. 12. Thus, eliminating the contradictions is a pyrrhic victory because the cost is so high that the resulting position remains clearly inferior to its realist alternative. 13. He has not made up his mind about which approach should be taken. 14. She failed to make her point about more cooperation between the two laboratories. 15. They are never at one with each other, no matter what the subject of discussion is. 16. In 1982 the inhabitants of Guam voted to seek U.S. commonwealth status, and a draft act to that effect was under discussion in the U. S. Congress in the early 1990s. 17. This is not a problem to be swept under the rug, however. 18. Before I go any further, I wish to make the point that I intend making only a few preliminary comments at this stage. 19. The field of sociology, on the other hand, seems to lay claim almost to the whole of human life beyond the biological level because virtually all human activities possess a social aspect - sociology is perhaps best viewed as a broad perspective on human activities that differs from the particular viewpoints from which such activities are perceived by direct participants or by students of other social scientific disciplines. 20. With the advent of modern technology and the explosive growth of human populations, this attitude has come under serious attack by a number of persons active in the area of animal rights, for practical as well as ethical reasons.

Завдання 2. Визначте, чи правильно передані українською мовою наступні антропоніми, і у разі помилки запропонуйте власний варіант передачі:

Lewis - Льюїс, William Coleman - У ільям Колеман, Raymond Gozzi -Раймонд Гоззі, David Bourland - Девід Бурленд, V. Mountcastle - В. Маун-ткастл, R. Di Giueseppe - P. Діджузеппе, Н. Mittelstaedt - Г. Міттелстедт, Coral Gables - Корел Гейблз, Andrew Meichenbaum - Ендрю Майченбаум, L. Rehm - Л. Рем, P. Friedman - П. Фрідман, S. Kovacs - Ш. Ковач, James Bart - Джеймс Варт, S. Hayakawa - С. Гайакава, Einar Eggen - Ейнар Егген, Gustav Torabjorn - Густав Торнбйорн, G. Sedgewick - Дж. Седжуік, Judy Deutsch - Джуді Дейч, Charles Derber - Чарлз Дербер, Harry Weinberg -Гаррі Вейнберг, Drexel Burnham Lambert - Дрексел Вернем Ламберт, Fred Keating - Фред Кітінг, Arthur Schlesingcr - Артур ІПлесінджер.

Завдання 3. Передайте наступні антропоніми засобами української мови:

a) Luc Reychler, Louise Drake, John Barrett, Stephan Kaukeleire, Erich Remade, Werner Bauwens, Bryan Watkins, Anvita Abbi, Ans van Kamenade, Frank Drijkoningen, Carol Blackshire-Belay, Morton Blommaert, Jean Germain, Geert Booij, Marica de Vincenzi, Sherman Wilcox, Jadviga Sambor, Christine Waugh, Miklos Kontra, Naoki Sakai;

2. Marcial Melrose, Philip Gough, Lance Hewson, Ahmed Hassanein, Aloyce Cunnigham, Jolanta Szpyra, Reiko Mazuka, Oskar Pfeiffer, Anjum Sa-leemi,Ulrich Ammon, Patricia Cukor, Timothy Jay, Karin Bokland-Lagopoulu, Johan van der Auwera, Jadranka Gvozdanovic, Dieter Stein, Jens Norgard-So-rensen, Ellen Douglas-Cowie, Sachiko Ide, Renate Raffelsiefen, Tom Wehrli, Jean-Francois Prunet, Rudolf Thurneysen,Laurel Anastasiadis, Jung Min-Choi, Lee Jollifee, Casey Man-Kong-Lum, Dale Anschutz;

Eileen Pearlman, Dong-Keun Ahn, Patrick O'Brien, Lance Strate Nic­holas Muir, Draper Kauffman, Deborah Nagle-Burks, Seth Ceteras, Shawn Blau, Reta West-Whinnery, Karen Rozga, Eugene Marlow; Andrew Barton Paterson, Niels Henrik Abel, John Fellows Akers, Edwin Eugene Aildrin, Luis Walter Alvarez, Friedrich Wilhelm Argelander, Neil Alden Armstrong, Antoine Henri Becquerel, Tycho Brahe, Williuam Wallace Campbell, Stanislao Canizzaro, Augustin Louis Cauchy, Anders Celsius

Завдання 4. Визначте, які особові імена передаються на українську мову за допомогою транскрибування, транслітерування чи змішаним способом, і перекладіть їх:

Gary Miller, Martti Nyman, Paul Schlachter, Sandra Thomson, Brian Mac-Winney, Frank Newmeyer, William Merrifield, Teresa Reinhart, Wendell Bright, George Collier, Robin Jaffers, George Pullum, Pamela Downing, Roger Abrahams, Stanley Peters, Keith Allen, Winston Washabaugh, Wallace Bennet, Louise Florbee-Losee, James Cowan, Archibald Hill, Rosaline Cairns, Albert Marckwardt, Larry Nessly, Phillip Mathews, Michael Henderson, Simon Blackburn, Irene Fairley, Noel Burton-Roberts, Thelma Sullivan, Sinclair Ro­gers, Colin Gallop, Melvin Patterson, Dina Crockett, Emmon Awbery, Shito Ki-tagawa, Herbert Stahlke, Maria-Louisa Rivero, Jiri Lepschy, Elsa Traugott, Kostas Kazakis, Wilhelm Bucher, Mercedes de la Gorza, Ingrid Hautsch, Erkki Itko-nen, Karl-Hampus Dahlstedt, Denis Francois, Merle Zeppick, Prasanna Pattar-nayak, Patali Subrahmanyam, Shue-Hsin Teng, Toba Sueyoshi, Laszlo Varga, Tadeusz Witczak, Hamidi Qafisch, Ho-min Solan, Baruch Elimelech, Karl-Gun-nar Zihelkvist, Ladislav Matejka, Heikki Paasonen, Minomi Yasui, Masayoshi Shibatani, Gianrenzo Clivio, Teun van Dijk, Ricardo Ambrosini, Francesco Antinucci.

Завдання 5. Передайте наступні власні імена українською мовою і поясніть правила передачі англійських звуків та літер засобами української абетки:

Dell Hymes, Allen D. Grimshaw, Courtney Cazden, David Crystal, Charles A. Ferguson, Stephanie Hall, Jane Hill, Nancy Hornberger, Douglas Maynard, William O'Barr, Hugh Mehan, Thomas Kochmann, Donna Lardieri, Dino Lu-zatti, Vivian de Klerk, Alfred Bloom, Kathryn Woolard, Charleen Rains, Gilian Sankoff, Sandy Flexner, Geoggrey Ward, Dorothy Milword, Brian Risch, Ras­kin Pahl, Talmy Givon, Emily Schultz, Bret Keating, Michelle Hollander, Fre-derich Newmeyer, Lucinda Rease-Alvarez, Baetans Beardsmore, Jess Gropen, Cynthia Bernstein, Elizabeth Cooper-Kuhlen, Uwe Reyla, Roger Higgins, Ro­bert Van Valin, Ivan Sag, Judith Aissen, Moses Warner.

Завдання 6. Перекладіть наступні назви навчальних закладів:

University of Surrey; University of Illinois at Chicago; University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee; Brown University; University of British Columbia; University of Chicago; University College London, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; University of Belgrade; University of Texas at Austin; University of Melbourne; University of Iowa; University of Florida; Indiana State University; State University of New York; University of California at Los Angeles; New York University; Loyola University of Chicago; State University of New York at Stony Brook; Stanford University; Yale University; California State University, Fullerton; Harvard University; Rhodes University, South Africa; University of Amsterdam, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, California Institute of Technology, Cornish College of Arts, Drexel Institute of Technology.

Завдання 7. Перекладіть наступні назви підприємств:

Abbot Laboratories, Alcan Aluminium Ltd., Armsrong World Industries, Bethelhem Steel Corp., Chase Manhattan Bank, Compaq Computer Corp., Data General Corp., Duracell International Co., General Dynamics, National Medical Enterprises, Occidental Petroleum, Pacific Telesis Group, Raytheon Company, Stanley Works, USAIR Group Inc., Union Carbide, Iv Communications, Hewlett Packard, S.A.K. Connection, B.T. Company.

Завдання 8. Перекладіть наступні назви журналів:

International Journal of Ethics, American Journal of Education, Science, Discovery, Archeology, Psychological Abstracts, Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, Daedalus, Anthropology, Geographical Review, Focus, American Anthropologist, Journal of Experimental Psychology, American Philosophical Society News, Journal of the American Medical association, British Historical Review, Perspectives.

Завдання 9. Перекладіть наступні назви наукових установ:

American Law Institute, Atlanta University Center, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art, Brookings Institute, Franklin Institute Science Museum, Institute for Advanced Studies, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Marine Biological Laboratory, Middle East Institute, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Smithsonian Institution, Well Institute of Architecture, Pratt Institute, Archeological Institute of America, American Institute for Foreign Study.

Завдання 10. Перекладіть наступні назви наукових та технічних громадських організацій:

Aaron Burr Association, National Aeronautics Association, Experimental Aircraft Association, Flag Research Centre, Financial Analysts Federation, Society of Architectural Historians, Society of Mining Engineers, American Academy of Allergy and Immunology, Aerospace Industries Association, National Agricultural Association, Society for Creative Anachronism, Institute for First Amendment Studies.

Завдання 11. Перекладіть наступні речення, звертаючи увагу на адекватність передачі назв у перекладі:

1. Dr. R. Dreyer Berg is director of the Canadian Centre for Culture and Technology, Port Alberni, Vancouver Island, BC, Canada. 2. In the 1980s in Silicon Valley (Santa Clara County, California), for example, production workers experienced hazardous working conditions, low pay, and expensive housing. 3. Such projects as the Strategic Defense Initiative or Star Wars have as their ultimate goal giving the USA absolute strategic superiority. 4. Arthur Asa Berger, Professor of Broadcast Communication Arts at San Francisco State University, has written many books on popular culture. 5. On April 30 the U.S. responded to the French plan by detonating a nuclear bomb in a tunnel at the US Department of Energy Nevada Test Site. 6. Andre Boiren of the Pasteur Institute in Paris, Walter Morgan of the Lester Institute in London and Walter Goebel of the Rockefeller Institute in New York City made the first major analytic studies in the 1930s and 1940s. 7. Stephen G. Brush spent the 1994-95 academic year at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, N.J., analyzing how empirical tests affect scientists' choice of theories. 8. The World Space Congress brings together scientists and engineers from the Committee on Space Research and the International Astronautical federation. 9. I assembled the following fragments of conversations with elementary school children during the past five years as part of a National Science Foundation Teacher Enhancement Grant project for teacher training in constructivist pedagogy in the physical sciences. 10. There are excerpts from a transcript of an address by Nicholas Johnson, who currently teaches at the University of Iowa College of Law, to the Third Conference on Computers, Freedom and Privacy held in March 1993 in San Francisco.

Завдання 12. Перекладіть наступні речення, звертаючи увагу на передачу фірмових назв:

1. IBM adds two utilities to its Warp Server. 2. Thermos is a brand of vacuum bottles and other insulated containers. 3. TelePrompter is a device employed in television to show an actor or a speaker an enlarged line-by-line reproduction of a script, unseen by the audience. 4. Polaroid is a camera and film that produce instant photographs. 5. There is a Dictaphone in the lab, so we are talking as we work. 6. Dolby is an electronic device that eliminated noise from recorder sound and audio signals. 7. Jaws of Life is a pneumatic tool consisting of a pincer-like metal device that is used to provide access to people trapped inside a severely damaged vehicle. 8. In case of an unavoidable accident, however, a BMW is ready, with a variety of «passive safety» systems, to minimize damage and injury. 9. Procter & Gamble learned about pricing the hard way as many of its biggest, most famous brands, like Pampers and Tide, got buffeted by competition in the 1990s. 10. Teflon is used in electrical insulation, gaskets, and in making low-adhesion surfaces, e.g., for nonstick cookware. 11. Nylon, a synthetic thermoplastic material introduced in 1938, is strong, elastic, resistant to abrasion and chemicals, and low in moisture absorbency. 12. Association of «tweed» with Tweed, the name of the river that is part of the border between England and Scotland, helped support the misreading, which was originally a trade name. 13. The first important plastic, celluloid, has been largely replaced by a wide variety of plastics known by such trade names as Plexiglas, Lucite, Polaroid, and cellophane. 14. Heroin was introduced in 1898 under that brand name as a cough suppressant derived from opium by the 48-year-old German chemical-pharmaceutical firm "Farbenfabriken vorm Fried-rich Bayer und Co". 15. Japanese engineer Tokuji Hayakawa invents the first mechanical pencil and markets it under the brand name Sharp. Proceeds will enable the inventor to start the Hayakawa Electric Company that will market a wide range of products under the harp name.

Завдання 13. Перекладіть речення, визначивши інтернаціоналізми та псевдоінтернаціоналізми:

• 1. All examples are taken from actual texts. 2. The manuscript was apparently completed in 1990. 3. Thus, the issue that this addresses is far from trivial. 4. Both contributions to this jubilee publication are appropriately authoritative. 5. Several indexes in the book make the wealth of information easily accessible. 6. The merit of this book lies in its rich collection of empirical data. 7. The articles are arranged according to subject matter rather than chronology. 8. In addition to the work mentioned above, the volume contains six studies originally published in English. 9. Each volume contains a "List of words cited" and an "Index of names". 10. The present notation is inaccurate and, in some cases, confusing. 11. The second article illustrates receptivity to date of whatever source. 12. Progression from treatment of a selected individual problem to that of a broad question may also suggest the direction of these studies. 13. There is something for everyone in this book, but perhaps not enough of any one thing to make it indispensable to a specific audience. 14. However, for lack of a strong theoretical overview, or of effective introduction to its different sections, this work falls short of its promise. 15. The studies here range from the Middle Ages to the present, and offer a combination of general surveys along with detailed investigations of specific aspects. 16. The new work, however, is considerably broader in scope and is an ambitious successor to that still valuable first collection. 17. With the exception of the paper written in 1991, all the articles contained here were included in their original languages of publication. 18. The monograph is essentially significant in that it includes English translations of articles originally published in German. 19. The quality of the contributions is very uneven: some scholars have taken this opportunity to publish rather trivial thoughts or highly speculative hypotheses. 20. For each expression there is a floor of definition below which its value if nil.

Завдання 14. Перекладіть речення, попередньо визначивши паронімічні слова:

la) Information theory measures information. It also investigates the efficient use of information media, lb) A successful artificial heart also requires efficient regulatory mechanisms, l c) In some cases, existing equipment must be replaced completely with more efficient new systems. Id) The mining industry helps conservation by finding more efficient ways to mine natural resources and less wasteful ways of turning them into raw materials.

2a) Among the functional groups that have been identified are learning, social, therapy, problem-solving, political action, and worship groups. Given the variety of functions, effective participation in groups requires a variety of skills. In family and therapy groups, for example, people must be effective in empathizing with others. In learning groups, however, people must have the wide array of skills needed for sending and receiving informative messages. 2b) Ionizing radiation has been effective in the treatment of some types of cancer. 2c) The way animals generate electricity by oxidizing organic fuels has prompted efforts to develop equally effective fuel cells. 2d) Mechanical methods of insect control often primitive and time-consuming are generally less effective than chemical methods. Temperature control is sometimes effective against insects that infest enclosed storage facilities.

3a) A dormant volcano, while currently inactive, has erupted within historic times and is likely to do so in the future. An inactive volcano is one that has not been known to erupt within historic times. Such classification is arbitrary, however, since almost any volcano is capable of erupting again. 3b) Many historic scientific breakthroughs have been presented to the scientific community at such conferences. 3c) Such information was gathered through the recording of life histories and folklore, and then connecting these details with archaeological and historical data. Boas also believed that similarities among different cultures were the result of similar outside influences rather than to the similarity in thought processes or to any universal laws of development. He stressed the importance of analyzing a culture within its historical context. 3d) Other historical novels merely use the trappings of history as superficial decoration, much as in a costume ball but the historical events themselves are relegated to the background. In the foreground are characters and plot, and both could be from any period of the past or even the present.

4a) The transaction can be as simple as buying a candy bar in a grocery store or as complicated as buying real estate. All such transfers are called exchanges. In some cases it is an easy exchange of money for a product. In other cases such as buying an automobile or a home there are more intricate legal formalities. 4 b) The term revivalism is most commonly associated with religious movements. It means alive again that is, breathing new life into an organization that has become stagnant because of adherence to formalism and tradition. It is against this natural conservatism that revivalism reacts.

5 a) Through judicial review the Supreme Court has become the primary interpreter of the Constitution. 5 b) In a book published in 1869, Galton had used studies of the families of important men to show that would be quite practical to produce a highly gifted race of men by judicious marriages during several successive generations. 5c) There are three organs of government in the constitution: the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary. The judiciary determines common law and also interprets statutes.

6 a) The United States Post Office established a creditable airmail service in 1918, first between New York and Washington, and then, in 1920, from coast to coast. 6 b) Prosecutors are often willing to accept plea bargaining, particularly when the case against a defendant rests on weak evidence or less than credible witnesses, and a trial may therefore result in an acquittal.

7a) Although intent to restrain is essential to this tort, motive is irrelevant. Locking a drunk in a closet to prevent him or her from driving home would constitute false imprisonment, regardless of the laudable motive. 7 b) Skaldic literature, from the old Norse skald, meaning "poet," is that medieval Icelandic poetry which is not heroic or mythical. It includes all the incidental verse found in the Icelandic saga, as well as the long laudatory poems - drapur - in honor of rulers.

8 a) He was uninterested in relationships of form and color but sought to convey basic human emotions—fear, ecstasy, dread,—by isolating the viewer before an amorphous image conducive to meditation. 8 b) However, what began as an association of like-minded private individuals had become a large-scale industry by the beginning of the 19th century; science would no longer be the disinterested study it had hitherto been, but a matter of national importance, glory, and profit.

Завдання 15. Перекладіть речення, визначивши слова-реалії та адекватний спосіб їх передачі на українську мову:

1. Culturally they are closer to Afrikaners than to blacks. 2. In summer they lived in houses made of cottonwood or spruce bark. The kashim was the center of various social activities. 3. The exchequer, in Britain, is the accounting and auditing department in the government's treasury. 4. Abolitionists also called upon each white citizen to cast aside prejudice against blacks and to join the crusade against slavery. 5. Affirmative action is a formal effort to provide increased employment opportunities for women and ethnic minorities, to overcome past patterns of discrimination. 6. The legitimated issue of peers may bear courtesy titles, but (except sometimes in Scotland) cannot inherit the peerage. 7. Boxing Day is an English holiday that falls on the first weekday after Christmas. The name was derived from the boxed Christmas presents given by householders to their servants and to the providers of such services as postal delivery and trash collection - thanking them for their work. 8. Audiencias were regional courts of law established in Spain and its American colonies to exercise royal authority in both judicial and administrative matters. In the 16th and 17th centuries they served as powerful arms of the Spanish throne in the New World, mainly to check the independence of the conquistadors. 9. An act of God is the legal term for a natural event of overwhelming force, an accident or disaster not resulting from human action and that no amount of prudence or foresight could have prevented. 10. An affidavit is a sworn statement made before a notary or some other person authorized to administer an oath; it is used in a court of law to advise the court of certain facts. 11. In England and Wales, under a distinction that has become increasingly blurred, a barrister has traditionally been the lawyer who tries cases in higher courts, as opposed to a solicitor, who briefs the barrister, handles pretrial preparation, and represents clients in lower court cases. 12. Executive privilege is the right claimed by members of the executive branch of the U.S. government to immunity from congressional investigation and judicial procedures. 13. In U.S. politics a favorite son is a person favored for nomination by a state delegation to a presidential nominating convention. Although he or she has little chance of being nominated, the favorite son controls a block of votes that can be released at a crucial moment to gain the election of a preferred candidate. 14. A gerrymander is an election district that has been redrawn by the party in power for its own political advantage. The word originated in 1812, when the Massachusetts legislature redistricted the state so as to favor the Democratic-Republicans in state senatorial elections. 15. In current terminology, hospice is the name for a program devoted to easing the pain of terminally ill patients and assuring them a "natural" death, free from the medical interventions often visited on dying patients in hospitals. 16. Impeachment is the first step in the process specified in the Constitution of the United States for removing the president, vice-president, or other government official from office upon conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 17. The American Revolution, the conflict by which the American colonists won their independence from Great Britain and created the United States of America, was an upheaval of profound significance in world history. 18. Addled Parliament is the English Parliament that met for two months in 1614 but failed to pass a single bill before being dissolved by James I. 19. The establishment of the Open University 1969 put the UK in the forefront of distance learning; the Open College and individual institutions also offer distance-learning packages. 20. Hip-hop is a popular music originating in New York in the early 1980s, created with scratching (a percussive effect obtained by manually rotating a vinyl record) and heavily accented electronic drams behind a rap vocal.

Завдання 16. Перекладіть речення, визначивши ті слова, які потрібно перекласти на основі вибору варіантних відповідників:

1. Conflict may, according to some theorists, have a positive social function. 2. One such refinement is a damping device that shortens the time required for the swinging of the weighing arm to cease. 3. Many analog devices have been replaced by digital devices, mainly because digital instruments can better deal with the problem of unwanted information, or noise. 4. Simple interest means that the interest payment for the year is the principal amount multiplied by the interest rate; for example, the interest on $1,000 is $60 if the interest rate is 6%. 5. Policy is guided by the recognition that crime is often socially produced, that criminals suffer from "problems in living," and that only truly dangerous offenders should be incarcerated. 6. The personality structure and life history of the psychopath are quite different from those of the person whose antisocial or criminal behavior is related to some underlying emotional disturbance, and from those of a person whose antisocial behavior results from living in a criminal subculture or in an environment in which such behavior is expected or rewarded.