1. The Indian languages 5. The Romance languages 8. The Greek language

Sanskrit (obsl), Hindustani, Gipsy Latin (obsl.), French, Italian, Spanish,

Portuguese, Rumanian, Moldavian

2. The Iranic languages 6. The Celtic languages 9. The Armenian language

Iranian, Tajik, Ossetic Scotch, Irish, Welsh, Breton

3. The Slavonic languages 7. The Germanic languages 10. The Hittite (obsolete)

a) Western Slavonic: Polish, Czech, Slovakian

b) Southern Slavonic: Bulgarian, Serbian, Slovenian, Croatian

c) Eastern Slavonic: Russian, Byelorussian, Ukrainian 11. The Tocharian (obsolete)

4. The Baltic languages

Lithuanian, Latvian, Prussian (obsl.)

Old Germanic languages Modern Germanic languages

Gothic , Burgundian, Vandalic – East – obsolete

Old Norse, or Scandinavian,

Old Norwegian, Old Swedish, – North – Norwegian, Swedish, Danish,

Old Danish, Old Icelandic Icelandic, Faroese

Old Saxon, Old Dutch, – West – Dutch, Afrikaans, Yiddish,

O. High German, O. English English, German, Frisian

The First Consonant Shift (Grimm’s Law) – 2 bc

Grimm’s law states correspondences between definite Indo-European (non-Germanic) and Germanic consonants

папа три Lat. noctem Lat. Labrum два иго Sanskr. bhratar madhu гость Lat. hostis (enemy)

IE G I p – f t – θ k – h II b – p d – t g – k III bh – b dh – d gh – g

father three Germ. naht lip two yoke brother OE medu guest

Indo-European voiceless stops (p, t, k) correspond to Germanic voiceless fricatives (f, θ h) Indo-European voiced stops (b, d, g) correspond to Germanic voiceless stops (p, t, k) Indo-European voiced aspirated stops (bh, dh, gh) correspond to Germanic voiced stops without aspiration ( b, d, g)

Verner’s Law

The idea of Verner’s Law is voicing of consonants.

According to Verner’s Law all the early PG voiceless fricatives which arose under Grimm’s Law became voiced if the preceding vowel was unstressed.

p – f – v – b t – þ – ð – d k – h – g – g s – z – r

Lat. sep'tem Lat. pa'ter Gr. de'kas (rotacism)

OE seofon OE faðar Goth. taihun Goth.laisian

NE seven– Germ. sieben O.Sw. fadar Goth. tigus OE lǣran – Germ. lehren