Part X: Lexicography

Lexicography, an important branch of applied linguistics, is the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. Although lexicography is an applied science, one that is concerned with the practical needs of users, it is still a science because it uses the methods of objective description, generalization, and constant revision. Lexicography is the preparing of dictionaries, and it deals with “the principles that underlie the process of compiling and editing a dictionary” (Jackson, 1988, p. 247). These principles may include a theory of description of vocabulary and its lexemes, organizing and presenting lexical description, and defining lexemes and expressions. These lexicographical principles derive from lexicological theory, e.g. the definition of lexemes, compounds, phraseological units, and others. Such sense relations as homonymy, polysemy, antonomy, and synonymy which are a part of lexicology are important in compiling dictionaries. Lexicography is also influenced by linguistics, e.g, the representation of pronunciation, which is a part of phonology. Traditional grammar plays a great part in compiling dictionaries, e.g., labeling parts of speech. The sphere of usage is a part of stylistics, and language variety is a part of sociolinguistics. We should not forget about the production of dictionaries, either. Simply put, compiling dictionaries require wealth of knowledge in different spheres of language development.

The term dictionary is used to denote a book, which may contain the following information about a word: spelling (graphics), pronunciation (phonology), part of speech (syntax), inflections (morphology), etymology, meaning or meanings (comparative synchronic semantics), older meanings (historical semantics), usage labels (dialectology), derivative words (morphology), synonyms, antonyms, and homonyms. “In a more general sense, the term dictionary is also applied to any alphabetically arranged compendium of special aspects of a language such as abbreviations, slang, or etymology, or in which the special terms of a subject are defined” (Dictionary, 2002).

10.1 Main Types of Dictionaries

Arnold (1986, p. 275) and Ginzburg et al. (1979, p. 210) classify dictionaries as linguistic and non-linguistic. The latter are dictionaries which give information on all branches of knowledge, namely, encyclopaedias. An encyclopedia differs from a dictionary in that “a dictionary is fundamentally devoted to words and an encyclopedia offers information on various subjects, with data on and discussion of each subject identified” (Encyclopedia, 2011).

10.1.1 Non-linguistic Dictionaries: Encyclopaedias

The term ‘encyclopedia’ is derived from Gr. enkyklios paideia, ‘in a circle of instruction.’ Encyclopedias deal not only with words, but with facts and concepts. This concept of encyclopedia gave rise to the idea of “collecting the materials of such instruction into a single work, in which the contents and relations of the various arts and sciences would be expounded systematically” (2002, Encyclopedia). Modern general encyclopedias try to cover all the fields of knowledge. They are published in multivolume sets and are usually illustrated. Different types of encyclopaedias exist such as short-entry encyclopedias, encyclopedias of the dictionary style, and monographic encyclopedias.

The most popular encyclopaedia in English is The Encyclopaedia Britannica (in 30 volumes), which is divided into three parts: “the Propaedia, a 1-volume outline of the whole; the Micropaedia, a 12-volume short-entry set; and the Macropaedia, a 17-volume long-entry set with articles by noted authors and scholars” (Encyclopedia, 2011).

The first remarkable American encyclopedia was The Encyclopedia Americana, edited by Francis Lieber (13 vol., 1829–33), and now it is a 30-volume encyclopedia. Noteworthy American encyclopedias include Collier's Encyclopedia (24 vol., 1949–51) and Encyclopedia International (20 vol., 1963). Notable multivolume juvenile encyclopedias are The Book of Knowledge (1910), World Book Encyclopedia (1917), Britannica Junior (1934), Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia (1922), and Merit Students Encyclopedia (1967) (Encyclopedia, 2011). It should be noted that The Encyclopaedia Britannica is published not only in England but in America as well.

Since the development of the Internet, online encyclopedias became popular, and the most popular among them are Britannica Online, which has three main products: Britannica Online School Edition (K–12), Britannica Online Public Library Edition (preschool to adult), and Britannica Online Academic Edition (college and university). World Book Web offers three products: School and Library Edition, Public Library Edition, and World Book Classroom.

The biggest of the computer age is an Internet-based online encyclopedia, the Wikipedia, which launched in 2001. It is sponsored by a non-profit corporation and written and edited collaboratively by volunteers. Anyone may submit articles, additions and make corrections. By the early 2000s it had about 1.6 million entries in some 100 languages, with about 600,000 entries in English Encyclopedia, 2011). ‘Wiki’ originated from the Hawaiian language, which means ‘fast’ or ‘quick.’ Disagreements exist in terms of reliability, accuracy, quality, breadth of coverage, authority of the content of Wikipedia, especially among academics and information professionals. Students are warned against referencing to Wikipedia as a source for their academic writing. “The most frequent criticisms are vandalism, inconsistency, unequal quality, uncorroborated attitudes, bias of the system, and tendency to adjustment and popularity gained by recommendations” (Polio & Kljajió, 2011). Some even argue that Wikipedia does not fit the term ‘encyclopedia.’ Nevertheless, diversity, free access, regular updating, detailed and numerous multilingual versions have turned Wikipedia into the most frequently-used source of information (Polio & Kljajió, 2011), indeed threatening the future of more traditional print encyclopedias.

In addition to general encyclopedias, there exist specialized encyclopedias. A random search on specialized encyclopedias shows the following results: Encyclopedia of Religion (2005), International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (2008), Encyclopedia of Sociology (2001), Encyclopedia of Education (2003), Encyclopedia of Drugs Alcohol and Addictive Behavior (2001), Encyclopedia of Communication and Information (2002), Encyclopedia of Bioethics (2004), St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture (2000), Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology (2001), Encyclopedia of Politics (2005), World Press Encyclopedia (2003), Gale Encyclopedia of Nursing and Allied Health (2002), International Dictionary of Film and Filmmakers (2000), Encyclopedia of Russian History (2004), and Encyclopedia of Leadership (2004), and others. Some of them have many volumes while others are two volumes.