3.2.4 Classification of Borrowings according to the Degree of Assimilation

Loan lexemes are also classified according to the degree of their adaptation. Irina Arnold uses the term assimilation for this process “to denote a partial or total conformation to the phonetical, graphical, and morphological standards of the receiving language and its semantic system” (1986, p.255). She identifies the following three groups of loan words: completely-assimilated loans, partly- assimilated loans, and non-assimilated loans, which she terms barbarisms. She believes that most of the borrowed words, which penetrated the English language in earlier times, underwent changes and became completely assimilated loans. A good example is the French word sport. Without consulting an etymological dictionary, one would assume it is of native origin. According to Albert Baugh and Thomas Cable (1993, p.219), the adaptation of some loan words occurred by the simple process of cutting off the Latin ending, e.g., conjectural (L. conjectural-is), exclusion (L. exclusion-em), and exotic (L. exotic-us). Thus, the Latin ending –us in adjectives was changed to –ous ((L. conspicus>conspicuous) or was replaced by –al as in external (L. externus>external). Latin nouns ending in –tas were changed in English to –ty (brevitas>brevity).

The second group containing the partly assimilated loan lexemes can be divided into several subgroups:

1. Loan words partly assimilated semantically because they denote objects and notions peculiar to a particular country from which they come. They may denote foreign clothing: sari, sombrero; foreign titles and professions: shah, rajah, sheikh, and toreador; food and drinks: pilaf (Persian) and sherbet (Arabian).

2. Loan words partly assimilated grammatically, e.g., nouns borrowed from Latin or Greek retain their original plural forms: bacillus – bacilli, crisis – crises, and formula – formulae.

3. Loan words partly assimilated phonetically, e.g., machine, cartoon, police, bourgeois, confetti, incognito, macaroni, opera, sonata, tomato, and potato.

4. Loan words partly assimilated graphically: e.g., in Greek borrowings y appears in the middle of the word (symbol, synonym); ph is pronounced as [f] (phoneme, morpheme); ch is pronounced as [k] (chemistry, chaos); and ps is pronounced as [s] (psychology).

The third group of borrowings comprises the so-called barbarisms, i.e. words used by English speaking people in conversation or in writing, but these words retained their original forms, e.g., adios, ad libitum, tête-a-tête, and vis-à-vis.

3.2.5 Etymological Doublets and Triplets

Etymological doublets are two words of the same language which were derived from the same basic word by different routes. Some doublets are formed from different dialects, e.g., whole and hale are dialectal doublets. Whole came from Midland dialect, whereas hale came from Northern dialect. They differ to a certain degree in form, meaning, and current usage. The Latin words episcopus and discus penetrated Old English as bishop and dish. Later these words were borrowed again to create the words Episcopal and disc. Phonetic differences indicate that some French words were borrowed from different dialects—the Norman spoken in England (Anglo-Norman) and Central French (Standard French). It is easy to identify the doublets which came from Central French. Latin c [k] before a developed into ch [t] in Central French but remained in Norman dialect. So, chapter came from Central French, which was originally adopted from Latin capitulum, a diminutive of caput; however, capital came from Norman dialect, which was also adopted from the same Latin word capitulum. The same explanation may be given to the doublets chattel and cattle. They both were borrowed by the French from Latin capitāle (possession, stock).

Scandinavian-English Doublets

Old Norse	English from Scandinavian	English from Old English
skyrta	skirt	shirt
skip	skiff	ship
lan	loan	lend

Latin-French Doublets

Latin	English from Latin	English from French
abbreviare	abbreviate	abridge
aggravatus	aggravate	aggrieve
amicabilis	amicable	amiable
appretiare	appreciate	appraise

The word appreciate was borrowed from Latin appretiare (to set a price to) in the1650s. The word appraise was borrowed from the stem of Old French aprisier in 1400. French borrowed this word from the Latin appretiare (to set a price to). The words gentle, genteel, and jaunty are borrowed from the French word gentil. Genteel and jaunty penetrated English in the seventeenth century. The same way chief penetrated English in the fourteenth century, and chef, in the nineteenth century (Pyles, 1964, p.336).

Etymological triplets are three words of the same language which were derived from the same basic word by different routes. Some examples are hospital (Latin) — hostel (Anglo-Norman) — hotel (Central French). All three words originated from the Latin word hospitāle. The verbs to capture (Latin) — to catch (Anglo-Norman) — to chase (Central French) have derived from Latin word captāre.

To sum up, although the English language has borrowed words from different languages and continues to do so, English remains English. What it has borrowed from other languages has given greater wealth to the English word-stock, not reducing the Englishness of the English language, but rather enriching it.