the Norman castle was at first merely a development of the burg, the palisade being replaced by a stone wall. In course of time further outer walls were added, with towers in them as an additional defence; for the castle was planned entirely for defence, and in the days of its perfection could be reduced only by famine. Chateau Gaillard, built by Richard I, after his return from the Crusades, is a splendid example; it has two outer wards, stubbed with circular towers, as one inner ward; into this inner ward is built the keep. This defensive characteristic of the Norman castle explains why in the eleventh and twelfth centuries we read of so many more sieges than open battles.

The fame of English arms in the Middle Ages arose from the longbow-men. Before the reign of Edward I the archer had usually been armed with the crossbow. Its home was in South Wales, and it was largely by Welsh archers that the battle of Falkirk was won in 1298, the battle that saw the defeat of William Wallace by King Edward I of England. Then the English archers began to use longbows, with which they won the Battle of Cressy in the Hundred Years' War.

Gunpowder revolutionised the art of war by proving too strong both for castles and armour; firearms too eventually superseded the longbow. Flodden (1513, the reign of Henry VIII) was the last archers' battle.

Monasteries. War and violence were such everyday incidents of early medieval society that to escape from them quiet people had to retire from the world altogether. But the early idea of monasticism — living by oneself — soon gave way in Western Europe to the conviction that the highest spiritual good was to be gained by a "common" life among other spiritually minded men. The form of monasticism in England was the rule of St. Benedict, a saint who lived in the sixth century.

The vows undertaken by a monk were poverty, chastity, and obedience. For long the life of the inmates was above reproach in the monasteries; but when their sheep and mines brought them wealth, they fell away from their high ideas. Right down to the time of the Dissolution under Henry VIII, they were known as the best landlords in the kingdom, and their suppression brought widespread distress. As patrons of art, particularly in the forms of building, handwriting, illumination and music they were the best agents of civilisation in the Middle Ages.

Among the monks were many begging friars, who first came as missionaries to this country in the thirteenth century. They begged their bread, and laboured among the poorest of the town poor. The two most famous orders were the Franciscans and the Dominicans.

Comprehension questions

1.Dwell on the literary legacy of medieval England.

2.Speak about medieval English science.

3.Education in medieval England.

4.Dwell on the architecture of churches in the Middle Ages.

5.Say a few words about typical houses in medieval England.

6.Speak on castles and the art of war.

7.Dwell on the life in medieval monasteries.

43. HENRY VIII (1491-1547)

This monarch was eighteen years old when he became the English King. The country was tired of the Wars of the Roses and different pretenders and claimants who wanted to seize the English throne. All the nobility and also common people had great hopes and expectations as to the new King. There were many rumours about Henry the Eighth. Some said he was

89

handsome, and the others said that he was a big, burly, noisy, small-eyed, large-faced, doublechinned, swinish-looking fellow in his later life. He also had several nicknames: he was called "Bluff King Hal" and "Burly King Harry", and some other funny names.

Much depended on the character of the young king. If he should possess the shrewdness and ability of his father, the country might look forward to contentment and prosperity.

Henry VIII was anxious to make himself popular; and the people, who had long disliked the late king, were very willing to believe that he deserved to be so. He was extremely fond of show and display, and so were they. Therefore there was great rejoicing when he married the Princess Catherine, and when they were both crowned; The King often fought at tournaments and always had victories — for the courtiers took care of that.

But it transpired very soon that Henry VIII had bad qualities. It was shown by his attitude to his father's ministers; Warham and Fox were retained, but Empson and Dudley were punished. They and their supporters were accused of many crimes they had never committed; and they were set upon horses with their faces to the tails, and beheaded, to the satisfaction of the people and enrichment of the King. The real advisor, or at any rate the most influential servant, of young Henry was Thomas Wolsey (1475?-1530), who, appointed Almoner in 1509, became by 1515 Archbishop of York, Cardinal, and Chancellor. Wolsey's influence was based upon an understanding of the king's ability and his headstrong temper.

Thomas Wolsey was the son of a respectable butcher at Ipswich, in Suffolk, and received so excellent an education that he became a tutor to the family of Marquis of Dorset, who afterwards got him appointed one of the late King's chaplains. On the succession of Henry the Eighth Wolsey was taken into great favour.

90

Wolsey was a merry man, who could dance and jest, and sing and drink; and those were the roads to the new king's heart. His task was to achieve success by humouring the king's fancies and by working on his ambition. As chief minister he had to guide his master in home affairs, Church affairs, and foreign affairs.

At home affairs they had either to resort to financial tyranny over the nobles, or to impose unpopular taxes upon the people. In Church they had to reform many abuses.

But at the beginning of his reign Henry's ambition turned to foreign affairs; he wished the entire Continent to feel his power and influence and to restore English prestige. Wolsey's chief care was to help his master.

The state of Europe could not be more opportune. In 1511 there was a rearrangement of Continental politics. The Pope, the Emperor and the King of Spain had suddenly united with Venice in a Holy League to drive the French from Italy. Here lay Wolsey's opportunity. By joining the Holy League Henry could make his first appearance in European affairs as the successor of the old English policy against France, ignoring the fact that France would be sure to have the old alliance with Scotland. This policy seemed more natural because Henry had recently married Catherine of Aragon. But Henry's first experience of war was unfortunate. In spite of all Wolsey's efforts Henry did not win the war which was soon proclaimed between England and France, because the English king did not mind them. England made an alliance with Spain and got stupidly taken in by that country, which made its own terms with France, when it could, and left England in the lurch. After this great defeat the King took it into his head to invade France in person. He sailed to Calais where he was joined by Maximilian, Emperor of Germany, who pretended to be his soldier and took pay in his service; the Emperor flattered enough the vanity of English king.

Henry's idea of real battle chiefly consisted of pitching silken tents of bright colours that were immediately blown down by wind, and making a vast display of flags and golden curtains. It was in 1512. But fortune favoured him, and he succeeded to defeat the French at the Battle of Spurs and to subdue two not very important towns. Almost at the same time the Scottish king, James IV, had crossed the Border, but was beaten at the Battle of Flodden. The Scottish king was killed at this battle. Ten thousand Scottish men lay dead that day on Flodden field (September, 9, 1513). For a long time afterwards, the Scottish peasantry used to believe that their king had not been really killed in this battle, because no Englishman had found an iron belt he wore about his body as a penance, for he had been undutiful son. But, whatever became of his belt, the English had his sword and dagger, and the ring from his finger, and his body too, covered with wounds.

91

The famous writer Sir Walter Scott, who knew Scottish history very well, being a Scot himself, gave a picturesque description of Flodden battle in his poem "Marmion". Here is an extract:

"And why stands Scotland idly now, Dark Flodden! on thy airy brow,

Since England gains the pass the while, And struggles through the deep defile? What checks the fiery soul of James?

Why sits that champion of the dames Inactive on his steed?

And sees, between him and his land Between him and Tweed's southern strand, His host Lord Surrey lead?"

But in spite of the victory over the Scots Henry saw that he had merely been the tool of Ferdinand, and he wanted to avenge him by concluding a peace and alliance with France.

For the next two years there was that lull in European affairs which precedes the storm. Several of the leading powers lost their old rulers, and the Continent was grouped into two great parties, headed by Charles V, King of Spain, and Francis I, King of France. This very division served to the importance of England. Wolsey found himself holding the balance of Europe. His object was to preserve peace as the best possible condition for England's interest.

Several years passed before the rivals broke the peace, and it seemed in 1518 as if Wolsey had succeeded in creating a united Europe. However, the very next year Charles V was elected to succeed his late father Maximilian. Francis I also had been a candidate for succeeding the German throne, and after his failure he became hostile to Spain. Which side should England take?

There was no doubt of her importance now; both sides courted her. But England's influence was not great enough to prevent the war which broke out in 1521, and Henry tried to support Spain, his traditional friend, against France, his traditional enemy. It was only in 1525, when the battle of Pavia had placed Francis as a prisoner in Charles's hands that Cardinal Wolsey had a real chance to restore the balance of power by an alliance with France. The chief result of this change of policy was an increase in the prestige of England, in spite of the fact that very little was effected in the field or even in the actual positions of the rivals in consequence of it.

Charles, the German Emperor, wanted to prevent the alliance between England and France, and he came to England and promised to Wolsey that he should be a Pope as soon as the next vacancy happened. On the very day when the Emperor left England, the King and all the Court went over to Calais, and then to the place of meeting, commonly called the Field of the Cloth of Gold. Here the great decorations of show were made; many of the knights and gentlemen were so superbly dressed that it was said they carried their whole estates on their shoulders.

There were sham castles, temporary chapels, fountains running wine, great cellars full of wine free as water to all comers, silk tents, gold lace, gilt lions; and in the midst of it the rich Cardinal Wolsey, out-glittered all the noblemen and gentlemen assembled. After a treaty made between the two Kings were opened the tournaments.

Of course, nothing came of all these fine doings but the speedy renewal of the war. But first we must see what happened in England, at home of Henry VIII.

At home there were two things that engaged the attention of Henry and his minister - the surviving representatives of the older branches of the royal family, and the expenses of the war. In 1521 the Duke of Buckingham was shamefully executed on Tower Hill, on the

92