to be married. But the idea of such a marriage was so unpopular in the country, that the King was even obliged to declare in public that he had never thought of such a thing.

He was, by this time, hated by all classes of his subjects. His nobles deserted every day to Henry's side; he dared not call another Parliament, lest his crimes should not be denounced there. It was said, that he dreamed frightful dreams because of his conscience, and started in the night-time, wild with terror and remorse. At last he heard that Henry of Richmond and his followers were coming against him with a Fleet from France; and took the field as fierce and savage as a wild boar — the animal represented on his shield.

Henry of Richmond landed with six thousand men at Milford Haven (1485), then encamped in Leicester with an army twice as great, through North Wales. On Bosworth Field the two armies met, and Richard, looking along Henry's ranks, and seeing them crowded with the English nobles who had abandoned him, turned pale. But he was as brave as he was wicked, and plunged into the thickest of the battle.

Richard's desperate glance caught Henry of Richmond among a little group of his knights. Riding hard at them and crying, "Treason!" he killed his standard-bearer, fiercely unhorsed another gentleman, and aimed a powerful stroke at Henry himself, to cut him down. But Sir William Stanley parried it as it fell, and before Richard could raise his arm again, he was unhorsed and killed. Lord Stanley picked up the crown, all trampled and stained with blood, and put it upon Richmond's head, amid loud and rejoicing cries of "Long Live King Henry!"

That night a horse was led up to the church of Grey Friars at Leicester, across whose back was tied, like some worthless sack, a naked body brought there for burial. It was the body of the last of the Plantagenet line, King Richard the Third, usurper and murderer, killed at the battle of Bosworth Field on the 22nd of August, 1485, in the thirty-second year of his age, after a reign of two years.

This ended the War of the Roses, finished the internecine bickerings and prepared the way for the economic development of the country. Supported by the Parliament and by the gentry and the townsmen, Henry Tudor established the new Tudor dynasty.

With the power of big landlords undermined by the long internecine war, Henry VII Tudor (1485-1509) disbanded the troops of the remaining nobles, destroyed their castles and made their lands his royal possessions. England entered a new stage of absolute royal power and became a powerful centralized state.

Comprehension questions

1.Describe Richard III’s crimes.

2.How was he dealt with by Henry Tudor?

41.SOCIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES

Class distinction. Political events have little meaning or interest unless we know something about the conditions under which the general life of a nation is being lived. We cannot really understand the history of a country till we know a social life of the people; we must be acquainted with the different classes of the population in peace and in war, at home and at market, and we must have some notion of their ideals as reflected in art and education.

When the English invaders came to this island, they found a civilisation superior than their own; the cities of the Roman-British Empire were especially unfamiliar to them, and were attacked and destroyed. They themselves were an agricultural people and were rather afraid of the enclosed fortresses of the enemy; it took them a century and a half to understand that cities like Bath and Gloucester might be profitably preserved.

In the Old English period society was divided into three clear divisions, king, thegn (earls and knights) and ceorl (villeins, peasants), and that local administration was equally clearly

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subdivided into shire, hundred, vill (township), and manor. The landholders of the shire met in the shire moot under the presidency of the sheriff (the king's officer), and gave judgement on the cases which were brought before them by the representatives of the subdivisions. The hundred, originally an association of families, and then the name was given to the district inhabited by them, had a similar system and tried similar cases. The vill was the name for a township, its members had to plough their fields in common and graze their cattle upon common land. But as land was the source of all national taxation, the most important institution of the time was the unit for the payment of taxes; that unit was the manor.

The Manor. Land was of two kinds: there was folk-land and book-land, the former being held not by the folk in common, but by a tenure known as folk-right; the latter being (granted by "book" or "charter" from the king) held by the ultimate owner of all land. We may say that the manor contained land of two kinds, that of the lord, and that of the villeins. The lord's land was known as his property, and his villeins worked on it. Later on, as use of payment in money increased, the lord found it desirable to receive money, so he consented to the practice of commutation, when villeins exchanged their labour for money payment.

As the lord exacted service from the villeins, so the king exacted service and taxation from him. Military service at the field with a prescribed number of followers for a prescribed time was only part of his obligations; he had also to give three other feudal aids — to help the king to knight his eldest son, to dower his daughter, and to ransom himself. Military service was commuted by Henry II, for a payment of two shillings or every knight's fee.

The feudal manor, the feudal economy unit with its natural economy, was in no striking way different in equipment from a peasant holding. The predominantly wooden implements such as wooden harrows, a number of ploughs where only the share was of iron, since iron was inordinately expensive, sickles and scythes, pitch-forks and carts, no fertilizers, extensive cultivation, low yields characterized the agriculture.

The three-field crop rotation system which became universal was an improvement as compared to the two-field system, was resorted to for shortage of arable land. More woods and waste land cleared, swamps and marshes drained gave additional arable areas; new settlements appeared to cultivate them, the virtues of intensive agriculture as against extensive perfunctory tillage were extolled in the first treatise on agriculture.

The lords, no longer content with their scattered, though numerous strips of land, sought to have separate arable areas, and so introduced enclosed fields (enclosures), the practice that was the chief cause of the eventual decay of villeinage. Wool was becoming a key to wealth. It was discovered how much easier it could be to grow wool on the sheep’s backs than to grow grain on the poorly cultivated fields, and the difference in how many hands were wanted was striking. Here were not only home markets ready to dispose of wool, for towns were beginning to develop wool-processing; foreign markets were open to receive English wool. The wool was shipped to the markets of Flandres and Holland, where a lot of textile manufactures emerged.

Sheep couldn’t be kept in open fields, and so the lords began mass enclosures. Enclosure consisted in the seizure of common lands by rich landowners and displacement of peasants from them. Peasants were literally driven off the common land. Enclosure and sheep herding required very few labourers, so it resulted in destitution, unemployment, mass pauperization, severe punishment for vagrancy, tens of thousands executions, as well as decreased domestic grain production, which made grain prices high and resulted in frequent famines.

When the Black Death swept Europe in 1348-1351, it left about 30% of the population dead. This greatly affected the English peasants, already suffering from the enclosure, because there was a labour shortage and food was scarce. There was a law passed at the end of the Black Death to stop the peasants taking advantage of the shortage of workers and demanding more money. Peasants were forced to work for the same wages as before, and landowners could insist on labour services being performed, instead of accepting money (commutation).

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This meant that the landowners could profit from shortages, whilst life was made very much harder for the peasants. The discontent was rife amongst the poor, but the uprisings were severely choked.

Barons more and more preferred to hire wage labourers who would not require vigilant overseers and would not, even nominally, be a responsibility. This advent on the scene of great masses of hired labourers also reflected the crisis of the manor.

The 13th century witnessed the birth of the new class of gentry, new nobles, small landowners who found it easier to adapt their less ponderous economy to the period when money rent was beginning to play an increasingly predominant role. With these small feudal knights personal labour of villeins was never of much use because of the limited nature of their agricultural operations; they had early been inclined to busy themselves with their economy and trade if need be, than, like their grander neighbours, to follow the king to war and glory and consider plunder as an asset. The class of gentry as the knights were then called collectively, was not exclusive at all: a wealthy peasant who sold enough wool to buy his freedom and then sold still more to become genteel, or a craftsman citizen who accumulated an income of 40 pound sterling, could be knighted and get included or get his son included, into this layer (the gentry) that was becoming increasingly important in the economic and political life of the country.

Class differentiation that was rapidly progressing among peasants was no the former division into villeins and free holders, but a more modern division into the rich and the poor. This differentiation progressed more rapidly among the free peasants. The more sly and unscrupulous among them, those who could take advantage of a neighbour’s hour of need, such as sickness оr death, would buy additional land right, take an impoverished neighbour’s land on lease, drive better bargains, etc. But even if the villein could grow more wool and get rich he would still be bound to his lord’s soil if the lord preferred his labour to the money, which was generally the case with great lords. And then the money accumulated with great pains would all go to pay for the right of inheriting his father’s land right, according to the feudal law.

Parliament. Under the Anglo-Saxon Kings, there was an advisory council, the Witenagemot ("meeting of wise men"). As part of the Norman Conquest of England, the new King, William I, did away with the Witenagemot, replacing it with a Curia Regis ("King's Council"). Membership of the Curia was largely restricted to the tenants in chief, the few nobles who "rented" great estates directly from the King, along with certain senior ecclesiastics. This body is the origin from which the Royal Privy Council with the Star Chamber4 and Cabinet have sprung. They were plainly upper-class secretive bodies of power, excluding the participation of broader populace. Later the Parliament (the Great Council) and the High Court of Parliament appeared.

Most historians date the emergence of a parliament with some degree of power to which the throne had to defer no later than the rule of Edward I. Like previous kings, Edward called

4The Star Chamber (Latin: Camera stellata) was an English court of law that sat at the royal Palace of Westminster from 1398 until 1641 (it was revived under the Thatcher government 1979–90 until to date.) It was made up of Privy Counsellors, as well as common-law judges and supplemented the activities of the commonlaw and equity courts in both civil and criminal matters. The court was set up to ensure the fair enforcement of laws against prominent people, those so powerful that ordinary courts could never convict them of their crimes. Court sessions were held in secret (secret trials), with no indictments, no right of appeal, no juries, and no witnesses. Evidence was presented in writing. Over time it evolved into a political weapon, a symbol of the misuse and abuse of power by the English monarchy and courts.

In modern usage, legal or administrative bodies with strict, arbitrary rulings and secretive proceedings are sometimes called, metaphorically or poetically, star chambers. This is a pejorative term and intended to cast doubt on the legitimacy of the proceedings. The inherent lack of objectivity of any politically motivated charges has led to substantial reforms in English law in most jurisdictions since that time.

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leading nobles and church leaders to discuss government matters, especially finance. A meeting in 1295 became known as the Model Parliament because it set the pattern for later Parliaments. The significant difference between the Model Parliament and the earlier Curia Regis was the addition of the Commons, that is, elected representatives of rural landowners and of townsmen. In 1307, Edward I agreed not to collect certain taxes without consent of the realm. He also enlarged the court system.

The tenants-in-chief often struggled with their religious counterparts and with the King for power. In 1215, they secured from John the Magna Carta, which established that the King may not levy or collect any taxes (except the feudal taxes to which they were hitherto accustomed), save with the consent of a council. It was also established that the most important tenants-in-chief and ecclesiastics be summoned to the council by personal writs from the Sovereign, and that all others be summoned to the council by general writs from the sheriffs of their counties. Modern government has its origins in the Curia Regis; parliament descends from the Great Council later known as the parliamentum established by Magna Carta.

The English Parliaments during the reign of King Henry III in the 13th century incorporated elected representation from shires and towns, and is considered the forerunner of the modern parliament. In 1265, Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, who was in rebellion against Henry III, summoned a parliament of his supporters without royal authorisation. The archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls and barons were summoned, as were two knights from each shire and two burgesses from each borough. Knights had been summoned to previous councils, but the representation of the boroughs was unprecedented.

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De Montfort's scheme of representation and election was formally adopted by Edward I in the so-called "Model Parliament" of 1295. At first, each estate debated independently; by the reign of Edward III, however, Parliament had been separated into two Houses – the House of Lords and the House of Commons - and was recognisably assuming its modern form.

Towns. In times of violence, protection is not to be found in the open country, and so, especially after the Danish invasions, we find a considerable number of towns in England. They had two origins — either in the burg or strongly fortified place, or in the “tun”, the enclosure round a house or estate. That the people so concentrated together for protection or trade sometimes called it their ham, or home, we see from such names as Nottingham. If such a settlement was founded by the Danes, we can guess it by the names of such places as Whitby, for their “by” is the English “tun”. In other cases a town may have grown round a large monastery.

But in whatever way they arose, we find by the time of Edward the Confessor that every country had at any rate one chief town, which belonged to several lords, who used it partly as their own town houses, and partly for their burghers or fighting men in periods of peace. Just as the country dwellers had their shire moot, so the town dwellers had their borough moot; and to correspond the sheriff there was the reeve to collect taxes and dues in return for the privileges granted to the burgesses; the reeve, too, held the local courts to administer justice, and became the town's representative in all affairs with the King. But privileges were not granted by the king alone. After the Conquest the Norman lords granted charters to the towns. The charter usually gave a form of self-government, and from the thirteenth century the towns had a mayor and aldermen. By burgesses we must not understand all the inhabitants of a town; the burgesses were originally holders of land or of a house within the town, and holders of a strip of agricultural land immediately outside the town; they alone paid the dues to the king, and they therefore kept the government of the town to themselves.

The towns (there were over 160 in the 13th c.) began to lose their semi-agrarian nature and gradually a demand was developing for foodstuffs that the craftsmen did not produce but consumed. Fairs were beginning to be a not wholly unimportant feature of the town life and the manor owners were not above making some money that way, so that part of the manorial economy was aimed at producing no longer food only, but goods as well, to be sold either at the fairs or, more conveniently, still, to professional buyers who could sell, grain especially, not only at the local market, but at the foreign markets of France, Flandres, Holland, Norway, etc.

Guilds. Even before the Norman Conquest the inhabitants of towns had begun to associate themselves into clubs or guilds for special objects and in special interests. These objects may be grouped into three classes and gave rise to the social or religious guild, the craft guild, and the guild merchant. The social or religious guilds flourished between the thirteenth and the sixteenth centuries and were suppressed in 1547-1548, when their property was confiscated by the Crown.

The craft guilds were composed by men following the same trade for the protection and regulation of that trade. The standard of workmanship, the number and training of apprentices, the conditions of work — all that was for the guild to regulate through its officers. They arose about the beginning of the twelfth century, and had become so important by the fourteenth that their government was usually in the hands of the town authorities, the mayor and aldermen. In the fifteenth century York had as many as sixty craft guilds. In London there are still eighty.

Even more connected with the government of the town were the merchant guilds; indeed, from the thirteenth century they may be said to merge with that government. They were associations of burgesses who obtained privileges from the king for their commerce. While their constitution was much the same as that of the other guilds, their object was rather to monopolise trade within the town for themselves, as opposed to the rest inhabitants, and to

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escape dues and customs when trading outside the town. As they controlled the whole trade of the town, their importance and influence were naturally considerable; they could supply town councils, and it is certain that the Guild hall often became the Town hall. Like the craft guilds, they stood for honesty in trade; as the former insisted on good workmanship, so they insisted on proper weights and proper processes.

Fairs and Markets. But local trade was not entirely in the hands of the guilds; outside traders were admitted at certain times and on certain conditions. The owner of the market reaped a rich harvest in return for its general convenience. At the time of Domesday Book there were some fifty markets in England, and although at first a good deal of fraud was practised in them, by the end of the thirteenth century a sound market law had been established.

In order to give merchants from afar or from abroad an opportunity to sell their goods, every year or two a great fair would be held — possibly at first on the occasion of a general holiday, or at some special place of pilgrimage. Happy were the landowners, on whose lands a fair was held, for it brought them great profits; often some monastery had obtained the privilege from the king. As long as the fair lasted, markets and shops were closed. The nourishing period for fairs was in the thirteenth century, when some two thousand were granted by the Crown.

Foreign Trade. Even as early as the end of the seventh century there was some commercial intercourse between England and the Continent. At the end of the eighth we find Offa and Charlemagne corresponding about the protection of each other's merchants in their respective countries. The coming of the Danes opened up the new fields for trade with Iceland and the north. But it was the Norman Conquest which gave the first great impulse to foreign trade; Flemish weavers were brought over by Henry I, and builders and masons came in large numbers from Normandy. Foreign traders and merchants were usually protected by special charters, and formed what was practically foreign settlements on English ground; often their status was decided by agreements between their native towns on the Continent and towns in which they settled in England. They were, in fact, members of trading companies not unlike the East India Company of later times.

But, of course, there were many foreign merchants who traded with England on their own account: wool was bought by Italians, wine was sold by French and Gascons; Jews, until expulsion from England in Edward I's reign, lent money to approved creditors at handsome rates of interest.

A large part of the political history of the Middle Ages hinges upon the pressure brought to bear from time to time upon the Crown by the increasingly prosperous trading classes to discourage foreign trade. Ambitious monarchs like Edward III, eager to pursue a spirited foreign policy, were too dependent on the help of foreign merchants, capitalists and bankers to pay much heed to their jealous subjects; Henry IV secured the throne largely by their assistance; but when the Yorkists relied upon the towns for success against their rivals, the towns were able to insist upon their rewards in a protective policy which taxed foreign competition.

Comprehension questions

1.Speak about the class differentiation in Anglo-Saxon England.

2.Speak about the manor and its eventual decline.

3.The Parliament.

4.Speak on medieval towns.

5.Speak on the emergence of the guilds.

6.Discuss the foreign trade in medieval England.

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