2_kurs_english

Task 4 Develop and discuss the idea: “The Pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies’ lead the way in translating the knowledge of diseases caused and developed into new medicines to help and heal patients …”

ASSIGNMENT …

Task 5 Construct a presentation about the discovery and development of new drugs. Use the expressions suggested in the abridged article above. Present it and give your opinion in the next class period.

USE THE FOLLOWING PROMPTS:

There’s an acute demand in new drugs. No medicine is found to cure …

The globe is plagued with such uncurable diseases as, HIV, AIDS etc.

to eliminate these diseases completely to relieve a pain

UNIT 2

TABLETS

Task 1 Read the text and get ready to discuss it. Use a dictionary, if necessary.

TEXT A.

TABLETS

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Common disk-shaped tablets

A tablet is a mixture of active substances and excipients, usually in powder form, pressed or compacted into a solid. The excipients include binders, glidants (flow aids) and lubricants to ensure efficient tabletting; disintegrants to ensure that the tablet breaks up in the digestive tract; sweetners or flavours to mask the taste of bad-tasting active ingredients; and pigments to make uncoated tablets visually attractive. A coating may be applied to hide the taste of the tablet's components, to make the tablet smoother and easier to swallow, and to make it more resistant to the environment, extending its shelf life.

Medicines to be taken orally are very often supplied in tablet form; indeed the word tablet without qualification would be taken to refer to a medicinal tablet. Medicinal tablets and capsules are often called pills. Other products are manufactured in the form of tablets which are designed to dissolve or disintegrate; e.g. cleaning and deodorizing products.

Medicinal tablets are usually intended to be swallowed, and are of a suitable size and shape. Tablets for other purposes, e.g., effervescent medicinal tablets and non-medicinal tablets, may be larger.

Medicinal tablets were originally made in the shape of a disk of whatever colour their components determined, but are now made in many shapes and colours to help users to distinguish between different medicines that they take. Tablets are often stamped with symbols, letters, and numbers, which enable them to be identified. Sizes of tablets to be swallowed range from a few millimeters to about a centimeter. Some tablets are in the shape of capsules, and are called "caplets".

When Tylenol capsules were laced with cyanide (an incident referred to as the Tylenol scare), many people stopped buying capsules because they are easy to contaminate, in favour of tablets, which are not. Some makers of over-the-counter drugs responded by starting to make what they termed "caplets", which were actually just tablets made in the shape of a capsule.

Tablets are often scored to allow them easily to be broken into equal halves for smaller doses.

Some people have difficulty swallowing tablets, this is called dysphasia. This is often caused by a gag reflex.

UNDERSTANDING DETAILS AND DISCUSSION …

Task 2 Work out the meaning of new words from the text. If necessary, look up new words in a dictionary, making sure you have the correct meaning.

PAIRWORK

Task 3 Use the bold and new words in the sentences of your own to show you comprehend them.

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Task 4 Ask your partner to give the definitions of: “tablet”, “capsules”, “pills”, “caplets”. Use them in your own sentences making sure you understand the context.

Task 5 What is ‘dysphasia’ and what is it caused by?

Task 6 Explain the terms “medicinal tablets” and “non-medicinal tablets”.

GOING BEYONG THE TEXT…

Task 7 Comment upon the medicinal tablets according to: the suitable size, shape, stamped with letters, symbols and numbers, etc.

TEXT B.

TABLETTING FORMULATIONS

Task 1 Scan the text to obtain some additional data about tablets.

In the tablet-pressing process, it is important that all ingredients be fairly dry, powdered or granular, somewhat uniform in particle size, and freely flowing. Mixed particle sized powders can segregate due to operational vibrations, which can result in tablets with poor drug or active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) content uniformity. Content uniformity ensures that the same API dose is delivered with each tablet.

Some APIs may be tableted as pure substances, but this is rarely the case; most formulations include excipients. Normally, an inactive ingredient (excipient) termed a binder is added to help hold the tablet together and give it strength. A wide variety of binders may be used, some common ones including lactose powder, dibasic calcium phosphate, sucrose, corn (maize) starch, microcrystalline cellulose and modified cellulose (for example hydroxymethyl cellulose).

Often, an ingredient is also needed to act as a disintegrant that hydrates readily in water to aid tablet dispersion once swallowed, releasing the API for absorption. Some binders, such as starch and cellulose, are also excellent disintegrants.

Small amounts of lubricants are usually added, as well. The most common of these is magnesium stearate; however, other commonly used tablet lubricants include stearic acid (stearin), hydrogenated oil, and sodium stearyl fumarate. These help the tablets, once pressed, be more easily ejected from the die.

Many tablets today are coated after being pressed. Although sugar-coating was popular in the past, the process has many drawbacks. Modern tablet coatings are polymer and polysaccharide based, with plasticizers and pigments included.

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Tablet coatings must be stable and strong enough to survive the handling of the tablet, must not make tablets stick together during the coating process, and must follow the fine contours of embossed characters or logos on tablets. Coatings can also facilitate printing on tablets, if required. Coatings are necessary for tablets that have an unpleasant taste, and a smoother finish makes large tablets easier to swallow. Tablet coatings are also useful to extend the shelf-life of components that are sensitive to moisture or oxidation. Opaque materials like titanium dioxide can protect light-sensitive actives from photodegradation. Special coatings (for example with pearlescent effects) can enhance brand recognition.

If the active ingredient of a tablet is sensitive to acid, or is irritant to the stomach lining, an enteric coating can be used, which is resistant to stomach acid and dissolves in the high pH of the intestines. Enteric coatings are also used for medicines that can be negatively affected by taking a long time to reach the small intestine where they are absorbed. Coatings are often chosen to control the rate of dissolution of the drug in the gastro-intestinal tract. Some drugs will be absorbed better at different points in the digestive system. If the highest percentage of absorption of a drug takes place in the stomach, a coating that dissolves quickly and easily in acid will be selected. If the rate of absorption is best in the large intestine or colon, then a coating that is acid resistant and dissolves slowly would be used to ensure it reached that point before dispersing. The area of the gastrointestinal tract with the best absorption for any particular drug is usually determined by clinical trials.

SCANNING FOR INFORMATION AND DISCUSSION …

Task 2 Use the context clues to explain the following:

What is the definition of the term an ‘active pharmaceutical ingredient’?

What is an active ingredient?

How is ‘a binder’ termed?

What ingredients act as binders?

Is an ingredient often used to act as disintegrant?

Task 3 Discuss all the passages of the text that can be sensed for:

Modern tablet coatings …, Tablet coatings are necessary… /useful …

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DISCUSSION …

Task 4 Keep talking … Use some of the expressions to construct a short dialogue with your partner.

TEXT C.

TABLET PRESSES. PILL-SPLITTERS

Task 1 Scan the text to obtain some more additional information about tablets.

An old Cadmach rotary tablet press

Tablet presses, also called tabletting machines, range from small, inexpensive bench-top models that make one tablet at a time (single-station presses), no more than a few thousand an hour, and with only around a half-ton pressure, to large, computerized, industrial models (multi-station rotary or eccentric presses) that can make hundreds of thousands to millions of tablets an hour with much greater pressure. Some tablet presses can make extremely large tablets, such as some of the toilet cleaning and deodorizing products or dishwasher soap. Others can make smaller tablets, from regular aspirin to some the size of a gun pellet. Tablet presses may also be used to form tablets out of a wide variety of materials, from powdered metals to cookie crumbs. The tablet press is an essential piece of machinery for any pharmaceutical and nutraceutical manufacturer.

It is sometimes necessary to split tablets into halves or quarters. Tablets are easier to break accurately if scored, but there are devices called pill-splitters which cut unscored and scored tablets. Tablets with special coatings (for example enteric coatings or controlled-release coatings) should not be broken before use, as this will expose the tablet core to the digestive juices, short-circuiting the intended delayed-release effect.

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UNDERSTANDING DETAILS AND DISCUSSION …

Task 2 Work out the meaning of new words from the text. If necessary, look them up in a dictionary to check their meaning.

Task 3 Keep talking … Use some of the ideas to discuss … It is necessary to split tablets into halves or quarters and why. Develop this idea in your own way.

UNIT 3

TYLENOL

Task 1 Read the summary of the medicine and get ready to discuss it.

TEXT A.

DESCRIPTION OF THE TYLENOL

DESCRIPTION

Acetaminophen, 4'-hydroxyacetanilide, is a non-opiate, non-salicylate analgesic and antipyretic, which occurs as a white, odorless, crystalline powder, possessing a slightly bitter taste.

It has the following molecular formula C8H9NO2 with a molecular weight of 151.16.

CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY

Acetaminophen is a peripherally acting analgesic and is well absorbed orally. Acetaminophen produces analgesia by elevation of the pain threshold. Acetaminophen is equal to aspirin in analgesic and antipyretic effectiveness.

The plasma elimination half-life ranges from 1 to 4 hours for acetaminophen. Acetaminophen is distributed throughout most fluids of the body, and is metabolized primarily in the liver. Little unchanged drug is excreted in the urine, but most metabolic products appear in the urine within 24 hours.

INDICATIONS

Acetaminophen provides temporary relief of minor aches and pains with heartburn or acid indigestion and upset stomach associated with these symptoms. Acetaminophen chewable tablets, elixir, drops, suspension liquid and suspension drops are designed for treatment of infants and children with conditions requiring temporary relief of fever and discomfort due to colds and "flu," and of simple pain and discomfort due to teething, immunizations and tonsillectomy.

DOSAGE AND ADMINISTRATION DIRECTIONS - (500mg tablets)

Adults and children 12 years of age and older: Two tablets every 6 hours. No more than a total of 8 tablets in any 24 hour period or as directed by a physician. Not for use in children under 12 years of age.

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USUAL DOSAGE - children

All dosages may be repeated every 4 hours, but not more than 5 times daily. Administer to children under 2 years only on the advice of a physician.

WARNINGS

Do not use the maximum dosage of this product for more than 10 days except under the advice and supervision of a physician. If pain or fever persists or gets worse, if new symptoms occur, or if redness or swelling is present, consult a physician because these could be signs of a serious condition.

Keep this and all medication out of the reach of children. As with any drug if you are pregnant or nursing a baby, seek the advice of a health professional before using this product.

PRECAUTIONS

If a rare sensitivity reaction occurs, the drug should be stopped.

CONTRADICTIONS

Acetaminophen should not be administered to patients who have previously exhibited hypersensitivity to it.

UNDERSTANDING DETAILS AND DISCUSSION …

Task 2 Based on the context, work out the meaning of medical and pharmaceutical words and terms. Look up into a dictionary, if necessary.

Task 3 Look up the underlined words and phrases in the dictionary to find their definitions and give sentences of your own.

Task4 Scan the directions to the medicine Tylenol again and discuss with a partner according to the scheme: description, clinical pharmacology, indications, dosage and administration, warnings, precautions, contradictions.

GOING BEYONG THE TEXT …

DISCUSSION …

Task 5 Think about and discuss… What warnings are and what you should do, if pain persists and gets worse, if new symptoms occur.

Use: When you’re …, It’s been my experience that … etc.

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UNIT 4

VALIUM

Task 1 Read the summary of the medicine and get ready to discuss it.

TEXT A.

VALIUM

DESCRIPTION

Valium (diazepam) is a benzodiazepine derivative. It is a colorless to light yellow crystalline compound, insoluble in water. The empirical formula is C16H13C1N2O and the molecular weight is 284.75.

Valium is available for oral administration as tablets containing 2 mg, 5 mg or 10 mg diazepam. In addition to the active ingredient diazepam, each tablet contains the following inactive ingredients: anhydrous lactose, corn starch, pregelatinized starch and calcium stearate.

CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY

In animals, Valium appears to act on parts of the limbic system, the thalamus and hypothalamus, and induces calming effects. Valium, unlike chlorpromazine and reserpine, has no demonstrable peripheral autonomic blocking action, nor does it produce extrapyramidal side effects; however, animals treated with Valium do have a transient ataxia at higher doses.

INDICATIONS

Valium is indicated for the management of anxiety disorders or for the shortterm relief of the symptoms of anxiety. Anxiety or tension associated with the stress of everyday life usually does not require treatment with an anxiolytic.

In acute alcohol withdrawal, Valium may be useful in the symptomatic relief of acute agitation, tremor, impending or acute delirium tremens and hallucinosis.

Valium is a useful adjunct for the relief of skeletal muscle spasm due to reflex spasm to local pathology (such as inflammation of the muscles or joints, or secondary to trauma); spasticity caused by upper motor neuron disorders (such as cerebral palsy and paraplegia); athetosis; and stiff-man syndrome.

Oral Valium may be used adjunctively in convulsive disorders, although it has not proved useful as the sole therapy.

The effectiveness of Valium in long-term use, that is, more than 4 months, has not been assessed by systematic clinical studies. The physician should periodically reassess the usefulness of the drug for the individual patient.

DOSAGE AND ADMINISTRATION

Dosage should be individualized for maximum beneficial effect. While the usual daily dosages given below will meet the needs of most patients, there will be some who may require higher doses. In such cases dosage should be increased cautiously to avoid adverse effects.

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HOW SUPPLIED

For oral administration, Valium is supplied as round, flat-faced scored tablets with V-shaped perforation and beveled edges. Valium is available as follows: 2 mg, white bottles of 100 and 500; 5 mg, yellow bottles of 100 and 500; 10 mg, blue bottles of 100 and 500.

SIDE EFFECTS

Side effects most commonly reported were drowsiness, fatigue and ataxia. Infrequently encountered were confusion, constipation, depression, headache, hypotension, incontinence, changes in libido, nausea, changes in salivation, skin rash, slurred speech, tremor, urinary retention, vertigo and blurred vision. Paradoxical reactions such as acute hyper-excited states, anxiety, hallucinations, increased muscle spasticity, insomnia, rage, sleep disturbances and stimulation have been reported; should these occur, use of the drug should be discontinued.

DRUG ABUSE AND DEPENDENCE

Withdrawal symptoms, similar in character to those noted with barbiturates and alcohol (convulsions, tremor, abdominal and muscle cramps, vomiting and sweating), have occurred following abrupt discontinuance of diazepam.

WARNINGS

Valium is not of value in the treatment of psychotic patients and should not be employed in lieu of appropriate treatment. As is true of most preparations containing CNS-acting drugs, patients receiving Valium should be cautioned against engaging in hazardous occupations requiring complete mental alertness such as operating machinery or driving a motor vehicle.

PRECAUTIONS

The usual precautions are indicated for severely depressed patients or those in whom there is any evidence of latent depression; particularly the recognition that suicidal tendencies may be present and protective measures may be necessary.

CONTRAINDICATIONS

Valium is contraindicated in patients with a known hypersensitivity to this drug and, because of lack of sufficient clinical experience, in pediatric patients under 6 months of age.

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UNDERSTANDING DETAILS AND DISCUSSION …

Task 2 Use the context to guess medical and pharmaceutical words and terms in this summary. Look up into a dictionary, if necessary.

Task 3 Look up the underlined words and phrases in a dictionary to find their definitions and give sentences of your own.

Task 4 Scan the directions to the medicine Valium again and discuss with a partner according to the scheme: description, clinical pharmacology, indications, dosage and administration, warnings, precautions, contradictions.

DISCUSSION …

Task 5 Think about and discuss… What warnings are and what you should do, if pain persists and gets worse, if new symptoms occur.

Use: When you’re …, It’s been my experience that … etc.

Task 6 How would you comment on the analysis of side affects of Valium?

Task 7 Have you ever come across a drug abuse of Valium? If so, comment upon the fact you are familiar with? Do it with your partner.

UNIT 5

ASPIRIN

Task 1 Read the summery of the medicine and get ready to discuss it.

Text A.

ASPIRIN

Formula: C9H8O4

Aspirin, or acetylsalicylic acid, is a drug in the family of salicylates, often used as an analgesic (to relieve minor aches and pains), antipyretic (to reduce fever), and as an anti-inflammatory. It also has an antiplatelet ("blood-thinning") effect and is used in long-term, low doses to prevent heart attacks and thrombus

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