2_kurs_english

Adequate intake of energy molecules, both carbohydrate and fats, is said to "spare protein", permitting a small protein intake to maintain positive nitrogen balance. In metabolic studies, the total amount of nitrogen intake is compared with the total excretion of nitrogen to assess protein balance. Excess amino acids may be converted to fuel.

When amino acids are "burned" as a fuel, ammonia (NH3] is the waste product. Ammonia must be carried to the liver, converted to urea and excreted by the kidneys. One of the penalties of amino acid excess is ammonia excess, a potential cause of body malfunction following a high protein meal. The blood measurement of urea nitrogen (BUN) shows the balance between urea production by the liver and excretion by the kidneys. The BUN rises in kidney failure and serves as a measure of ammonia or nitrogen. In liver disease, reduced ability to synthesize urea leads to ammonia accumulation. Ammonia is neurotoxic and contributes to the syndrome of brain disfunction in liver failure, hepatic encephalopathy.

Patients with reduced kidney or liver function are required to restrict protein, since their ability to handle the nitrogen waste of oxidized amino acids is limited. Fluctuating levels of ammonia influences brain cell function; they should be considered whenever brain function is abnormal. Some children are born with metabolic abnormalities in the handling of amino acids and ammonia. They often present with malfunctioning brains.

DETERMINE MEANING … UNDERSTANDING DETAILS …

Task 2 Try to work out the meaning of the underlined words and phrases relating to the topic. If necessary, refer to your dictionary to check the meaning.

Task 3 Use the underlined words and phrases in the sentences of your own to show you comprehend them.

Task 4 Underline the topic sentences expressing the main idea of each paragraph.

DISCUSSION …

Task 5 Choose one idea as your topic sentence to discuss with your partner.

Task 6 Discuss all the passages of the text with your classmates giving your viewpoint.

Task 7 Give the dictionary definition of ‘spare protein’.

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GOING BEYOND THE TEXT... COMMUNICATE IN ENGLISH TO PRACTICE AUTHENTIC SITUATIONS …

Task 8 Develop a 10-12 line dialogue using the underlined words and terms.

Task 9 Pairwork: What is the waste product?

Use the words to communicate better: “burned”, ammonia excess, excretion, neurotoxin, nitrogen, etc.

TEXT B.

AMINO ACIDS: ALPHABET OF LIFE

Task 1 Scan the text to get some more additional information.

AMINO-ACID is a basic constituent, or ‘building brick’ of protein.

Amino acids are the alphabet characters of body proteins. Proteins are chains of amino acids linked together like beads on a necklace. The individual amino acids fall into two groups: the essential AA's, which must be ingested, and the non-essential AA's, which can be synthesized in the body and need not appear in the food.

Body protein breaks down into 20 different amino-acids. A total of 9 amino acids are considered essential, while another 11 or so can be synthesized from the essential amino acids. There are other amino acids which appear in nature that are not included in protein structure. These odd amino acids appear especially in plants, where they may have roles as insect deterrents. An occasional non-nutrient amino acid may be useful in the food supply as an accessory nutrient -taurine is a prime candidate.

Essential amino acids:

histidine, isoleucine,leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, valine

Nonessential amino acids:

alanine, arginine, aspartic acid, cystine, glutamic acid, glycine, proline, serine,,tyrosine

Possible accessory nutrient:

Amino-acids group together to form peptides. Dipeptides have two aminoacids, polypeptides have many. Polypeptides join (polymerize) to form proteins. The reverse process occurs when proteins are digested.

AMINO ACID REQUIREMENTS & INTOLERANCES

The need for specific amino acids is difficult to determine. There is a wide range of needs and tolerances among different individuals. Amino acids appear to be relatively easy to obtain in adequate amounts, even on simple vegetarian diets with no meat, fish, eggs, or milk, provided that different vegetables are combined. Mixing a legume with a grain or with a tuber should provide a complete amino acid mixture, as well as a good variety of vitamins and minerals.

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SCANNING FOR INFORMATION AND DISCUSSION …

Task 2 Use the context clues to explain the underlined words/phrases. Write the unfamiliar words/phrases into your notebook and learn them to use.

Task 3 Pairwork. How might you respond to the following … What groups do amino acids fall into?

What do essential amino acids include? What do nonessential amino acids include?

Task 4 Explain what the abbreviation AA stands for.

Task 5 Discuss all the passages of the text with your classmates giving your viewpoint.

Task 6 Choose the idea “Amino acid requirements and intolerances” to discuss with a partner.

ASSIGNMENT …

Task 7 Prepare a short report about protein and amino acids, which are treated as the alphabet of life and present it in the next class period.

UNIT 5

ALKALOIDS

Task 1 Skim through the text to figure out the main idea. Be ready to discuss it.

TEXT .

ALKALOIDS

An alkaloid is a naturally occurring amine produced by a plant, but amines produced by animals and fungi are also called alkaloids. Many alkaloids have pharmacological effects on humans and other animals. The name derives from the word alkaline; originally, the term was used to describe any nitrogen-containing base.

Alkaloids are usually derivatives of amino acids, and many have a bitter taste. They are found as secondary metabolites in plants (e.g. potatoes and

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tomatoes), animals (e.g. shellfish) and fungi. Many alkaloids can be purified from crude extracts by acid-base extraction.

Alkaloids are main nitrogenous-containing compounds of vegetable origin having powerful actions on the body. Most alkaloids are crystalline substances and contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in their molecules. Some alkaloids, such as coniine from hemlock and nicotine from tobacco, are liquids and oxygen free. Coloured alkaloids are very rare in the nature.

While many alkaloids are poisonous, some are used medicinally as analgesics (pain relievers) or anaesthetics, particularly morphine and codeine, and for other uses.

Alkaloids occur in many families of flowering plants, especially in the dicotyledons. The free bases are just slightly soluble in water, but readily soluble in dilute acids with the formation of alkaloidal salts. Phenolic alkaloids e.g. morphine are soluble in both acid and alkali. In general the free bases are soluble in alcohol and organic solvents. Alkaloids are usually present in plants in the form of salts of organic acids or associated with tannins.

DETERMINE MEANING … AND DISCUSSION …

Task 2 Use the context to guess the meaning of the underlined words in the text. Then check them in a dictionary.

Task 3 Give examples of poisonous alkaloids and medicinal ones and comment on all ‘pros’ and ‘cons’.

Task 4 This text has some useful information about the plant origin of alkaloids. See what it has to say where alkaloids occur.

GOING BEYOND THE TEXT...

Task 5 Construct a short dialogue with your partner using as many active words and terms of the text as possible.

Task 6 Discuss the following questions to comprehend the text:

1.What are alkaloids? Give your definition and compare it with the dictionary one.

2.Where are alkaloids found?

3.What’s the composition of alkaloids?

4.What’s the main medicinal effect of alkaloids?

5.What form are alkaloids present in plants?

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ASSIGNMENT …

Task 7 Use additional material to prepare a report about alkaloids. Deliver it in the next class period.

UNIT 6

CARBOHYDRATES

Task 1 Scan the text for the unfamiliar words and terms so you’ll be able to comprehend the context.

TEXT A.

CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates or saccharides, also called Carbs

(Greek σάκχαρον meaning "sugar") are simple molecules that are straightchain aldehydes or ketones with many hydroxyl groups added, usually one on each carbon atom that is not part of the aldehyde or ketone functional group. Carbohydrates are compounds of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen formimg an important part of the diet and contributing mainly energy. Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules, and fill numerous roles in living things, such as the storage and transport of energy (starch, glycogen) and structural components (cellulose in plants, chitin in animals). Additionally, carbohydrates and their derivatives play major roles in the working process of the immune system, fertilization, pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development.

Carbohydrates include sugar, starches and celluloses and are structurally classified into three main groups – monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides.

The basic carbohydrate units are called monosaccharides, such as glucose, galactose, and fructose. The general chemical formula of an unmodified monosaccharide is (C·H2O)n, where n is any number of three or greater.

Monosaccharides can be linked together in almost limitless ways. Two joined monosaccharides are called disaccharides, such as sucrose and lactose. Carbohydrates containing between about three to six monosaccharide units are termed oligosaccharides; anything larger than this is a polysaccharide. Polysaccharides, such as starch, glycogen, or cellulose, can reach many thousands of units in length. Many carbohydrates contain one or more modified monosaccharide units that have had one or more groups replaced or removed. For example, deoxyribose, a component of DNA, is a modified version of ribose; chitin is composed of repeating units of N-acetylglucosamine, a nitrogen-containing form of glucose.

Carbohydrates are one of the main types of food. Your liver breaks down carbohydrates into glucose (blood sugar). Your body uses this sugar for energy for your cells, tissues and organs.

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TWO TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES

There are two major types of carbohydrates in foods: simple and complex, depending on how fast your body digests and absorbs the sugar.

Simple carbohydrates: These are also called simple sugars. Simple sugars are found in refined sugars, like the white sugar you'd find in a sugar bowl. If you have a lollipop, you're eating simple carbohydrates. But you'll also find simple sugars in more nutritious foods, such as fruit and milk. It's better to get your simple sugars from food like fruit and milk. Why? Because they contain vitamins, fiber, and important nutrients like calcium. A lollipop does not.

Complex carbohydrates: These are also called starches. Starches include grain products, such as bread, crackers, pasta, and rice. As with simple sugars, some complex carbohydrate foods are better choices than others. Refined grains, such as white flour and white rice, have been processed, which removes nutrients and fiber. But unrefined grains still contain these vitamins and minerals. Unrefined grains also are rich in fiber, which helps your digestive system work well. Fiber helps you feel full, so you are less likely to overeat these foods. That explains why a bowl of oatmeal fills you up better than sugary candy that has the same amount of calories as the oatmeal.

DETERMINE MEANING …UNDERSTANDING DETAILS …

Task 2 Using the context, work out the meaning of the underlined and bold words and phrases relating to the text topic. Check them in a dictionary.

Task 3 Use the words and phrases in bold in the sentences of your own to show you comprehend them.

Task 4 Underline the topic sentences expressing the main idea of each paragraph.

DISCUSSION ….

Task 5 Choose one idea as your topic sentence to discuss with your partner.

Task 6 Discuss all the passages of the text with your classmates giving your viewpoint.

Task 7 Explain the effect of carbohydrates in foods, depending on how fast a body digests and absorbs the sugar.

GOING BEYOND THE TEXT. PRACTICE AUTHENTIC SITUATIONS…

Task 8 Develop a 10-12 line dialogue using words and terms in bold.

Task 9 Pairwork: Give other definitions to:

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-simple carbohydrates’;

-complex carbohydrates’.

Use them in the sentences of your own.

Task 10 Keep talking … Discuss how carbohydrates are used in the body.

TEXT B.

HOW THE BODY USES CARBOHYDRATES

Task 1 Scan the text to get some more additional material.

When you eat carbohydrates, the body breaks them down into simple sugars. These sugars are absorbed into the bloodstream. As the sugar level rises in your body, the pancreas releases a hormone called insulin. Insulin is needed to move sugar from the blood into the cells, where the sugar can be used as a source of energy.

When this process goes fast - as with simple sugars - you're more likely to feel hungry again soon. When it occurs more slowly, as with a whole-grain food, you'll be satisfied longer. These types of complex carbohydrates give you energy over a longer period of time.

The carbohydrates in some foods (mostly those that contain a lot of simple sugars) cause the blood sugar level to rise more quickly than others. Scientists have been studying whether eating foods that cause big jumps in blood sugar may be related to health problems like diabetes and heart disease. You're probably already on the right track if you are limiting simple sugars (such as candy) and eating more complex carbohydrates (like vegetables, oatmeal, and whole-grain wheat bread).

Complex carbohydrates and some simple carbohydrates provide vitamins, minerals and fiber. Products made with refined sugar provide little nutrition. It is wise to limit these products.

SCANING FOR UNDERSTANDING AND DISCUSSION…

Task 2 Try to work out the meaning of the underlined clue words. Write down the unfamiliar words into your notebook and learn them to use.

Task 3 Comment on the facts with your work partner. What may the carbohydrates in some foods cause? Explain, how the body uses carbohydrates and what the body feels when this process goes fast or slow.

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GIVING VIEWPOINT OR OPINION …

Task 4 With a partner or partners (2-4) choose one of the ideas below, explain why you agree or disagree …; give your opinion and details to support your views:

-The Pharmaceutical Chemistry is concerned with health care - the design, chemical synthesis and testing of new medicines;

-the chemical elements are listed in the periodic table and what the main value of it is;

-water takes many different forms on Earth and why humans require water;

-proteins and amino acids are considered the alphabet of life and why;

-the body uses carbohydrates and what the body feels when this process goes fast or slow;

ASSIGNMENT:

Task 5 Develop a project on one of the above mentioned ideas and present it in the next class period. Give your opinion of the item considered. Ground your words. Make the new vocabulary and pharmaceutical terms active in your discussion.

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MODULE 5

CURE AND TREAT DEASESE DRUGS

____________________________________________________________

PREPARING TO READ…

as you read, notice how:

-pharmaceutical companies are using new knowledge and techniques to attack the root causes of disease rather than the symptoms;

-anti-drug campaigns are fighting against the problems of addicts;

-medicines are supplied.

-сommon diseases widely-spread on the Globe.

UNIT 1

PHARMACEUTICAL CAREERS IN THE USA

Task 1 Read the dictionary article on the theme studied and get ready to comment on new drug discovery and development period.

TEXT.

DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF NEW

LIFE-SAVING DRUGS

Almost half of the most important global drugs (those approved in the United States, Europe and Japan) were of US origin, followed by the UK with 14%. Within the last decade, US companies developed 370 new medicines to fight such diseases as cancer, hypertension, heart disease, diabetes, Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, depression, arthritis and a lot of other diseases. With accelerating advances in science and technology, the industry has entered its most promising period for new drug development. Pharmaceutical companies are using new knowledge and techniques to

understand and attack the root causes - rather than just the symptoms - of disease,

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and thus to revolutionize the way in which new drugs are discovered and developed.

An increasing number of the advances in drug discovery and development are based on advances in genomics, which aims to establish the link between individual genes and disease. New technologies include:

Molecular modelling, which allows scientists to actually design molecules on a computer screen;

X-ray crystallography, which helps researchers determine the threedimensional structure of a drug target so they can design molecules that will bind to it;

High-throughout screening, which uses robotics or automated technology to screen more compounds in an hour than an army of researchers can screen in a month;

Laser-capture microscopes, which act like molecular scalpels to capture individual cells on glass slides so they can be studied against possible drug targets;

'Laboratories on a chip', which hold hundreds of fragments of DNA in tiny individualized wells to quickly identify drug targets.

The new technologies will make it possible to anticipate and prevent disease rather than just react to disease symptoms; prevent, cure and treat more diseases than is possible with conventional therapies, and develop more precise and effective new medicines with fewer side effects.

To develop a new drug is time-consuming, expensive and risky. It takes 1215 years on average, costs about $500 million, and only one of every 5,000-10,000 new compounds discovered in the laboratory ever makes it to market as a new drug. Government and academic scientists lead the way in basic research about how diseases are caused and develop, while industry leads the way in translating that knowledge into new medicines to help and heal patients.

UNDERSTANDING DETAILS AND DISCUSSION …

Task 2 Comment upon the following

1.What did you come to know from the article about the drug discovery and development?

2.What is the new revolutionized way in drug development?

3.What are the advances in the new drug technologies?

4.How do the new technologies make it possible to anticipate and prevent disease?

5.How long does it take to develop a new drug and how much does it cost?

GOING BEYONG THE TEXT. COMMUNICATE IN ENGLISH …

Task 3 Develop and discuss the idea: “Government and academic scientists lead the way in basic research about how diseases are caused and develop …”

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