ICCROM_05_HistoryofConservation00_en

The additional recommendation regarding the restoration of the monuments of the Acropolis approved in principle the reconstruction of the northern colonnade of the Parthenon, and although recognizing the positive results obtained in the use of modern restoration techniques, it expressed a certain concern about the use of cement and ironcramps. The plans of Balanos were later carried out, and the decades that have passed since the Resolution have shown that this concern was in fact justified. Some fifty years later the concrete and the rusting ironcramps have become a serious problem, in great part responsible for the cracking and decay of original marble blocks. (91)

This resolution, the ‘Athens Charter’, was later adopted by the International Committee of Intellectual Co-operation, which recommended a closer co-operation between Member-States to ensure the conservation of monuments and works of art. It also stressed the imporance of teaching children and young people to respect monuments

“whatever the civilisation or period to which they belong and that this educative action also be extended to the general public with a view to associating the latter in the protection of the records of any civilisation.” (92)

Similarly, the Assembly of the League of Nations approved these resolutions, recommending their communication to the Member Governments. (93) The Charter marked the end of a phase in the development of the concepts of conservation, abandoning stylistic restoration and emphasizing the conservation of authentic historic monuments and works of art, and providing guidelines for their respectful restoration. It was the first policy document accepted at an intergovernmental level, and thus marked the beginning of the formulation of international guidelines and recommendations aiming at the preservation of cultural heritage. It also formed a model, which was soon followed by the Italian National Charter for Conservation, drafted by Giovannoni, one of the co-authors of the Athens Charter.

In 1933, the Congres internationaux d’Architecture moderne (C.I.A.M.) held a meeting at Athens to discuss the principles of modern town-planning; the conclusions of the meeting were later edited and published anonymously in Paris by Le Corbusier as la Charte d’Athenes (1941). A section of this Charter dealt with historic towns, emphasizing the preservation of their historic values, refusing

any modern constructions in style, and taking into consideration social and hygienic problems, as well as traffic. (94)

Notes to Chapter Twenty

1.Monumentos Nacionaes Portuguezes, Legislaçao, Lisboa 1910, 3ff Torres Balbas, L., ‘Restauration des Monuments dans l’Espagne d’aujourd’hui’, Mouseion, XVII-XVIII, i, 1932, 23ff.

2.Brown, G.Baldwin, The Care of Ancient Monuments, Cambridge 1905, 172ff.

3.De Naeyer, André, Monumentenzorg, AntwerpenAmsterdam 1975, 79f, 87.

4.Auzas, P-M, Eugène Viollet-le-Duc 1814-1879, Paris 1979, 225.

5.Cloquet, L., ‘La Restauration des monuments anciens’, Bulletin du cercle historique et archéologique de Gand, 1894, I, 23ff, 49ff, 77ff. The same article also in: Revue de l’art chrétien, 1901, XLIV, 498ff, 1902, XLV, 41ff. See also: Tschudi-Madsen, S., Restoration and AntiRestoration, Oslo 1976, 90, 98f.

6.Tillema, J.A.C., Geschiedenis Monumentenzorg, Staatsuitgeverij - ‘s-Gravenhage 1975, 88.

7.Ibid, 97. Auzas, P-M., Op.cit., 235.

8.Tillema, J.A.C., Op.cit., 100ff.

9.Ibid, 259: de Stuers wrote: “Restauratie is in Nederland een groote uitzondering; een natie, welke niet eens de monumenten die in goeden staat verkeeren onderhoudt, is zelden te bewegen een ruine te herstellen”, and that restoration was carried out “met zooveel onkunde en roekeloosheid”.

10.Ibid, 267. The ‘College van Rijksadviseurs voor de Monumenten van Geschiedenis en Kunst’ was established by the Royal Order of 8 March 1874, No. 14, on the initiative ov the Minister J.H. Geertsema Czn.

11.The 1911-report of Kalf was published in the Tijd,

23 December 1911. (Ibid, 311ff.) The introduction to the law, December 1917, was named: ‘Grondbeginschen

prescriptions for the conservation, the repair and the extension of old buildings’) (Ibid, 53.).

12. Lemaire, R. Chan., La Restauration des Monuments anciens, Anvers 1938, 43ff. According to Lemaire, historic buildings could be seen from four points of view: a) “Toute oeuvre architecturale doit être considérée premièrement du point de vue de son rendement utile”, b) “Mais l’architecture ne vise pas uniquement à réaliser l’utile; elle est aussi un art”, c) “Elle est notamment un

document historique et archéologique”, d) “En dehors de ce triple caractère: utile, artistique, documentaire, tout édifice peut en avoir un quatrième: le caractère pittoresque”. (Lemaire, Op.cit., 64ff)

He further stated that judgement should be based on the following:

a) “Etablir aussi exactement que possible les coefficients des diverses valeurs actuelles de l’édifice, en se plaçant aux quatreapoints de vue énoncés plus haut.” b) “Examiner ce que deviendraient ces coefficieints en cas d’intervention et en cas d’abstention.” c) “Faire le compte et voir quelle solution donnera à l’édifice, dans l’avenir, le maximum de valeur.” (Lemaire, Op.cit., 73)

13.Schlegel, F., Bref upp† en Resa genom Nederländerne, Nejderne kring Rhen, Schweitz och en del af Frankrike, Stockholm 1817.

14.Östergren, S., ‘Care of Cultural Monuments in Sweden: the historical background’, ICOMOS Bulletin, VI, 1981, ‘The Cultural Heritage in Sweden’, Stockholm 1981, 24ff.

15.Grandien, B., Drömmen on medeltiden, Carl Georg Brunius som byggmästare och idéförmedlare, Lund 1974, 535f.

16.Ibid, 524. The plans for the restoration were prepared by architect Axel Nyström.

17.Brunius, C.G., Nordens äldsta metropolitankyrka, 1836. The first monographic study of its kind in the Scandinavian countries.

18.Stieglitz, C.L., Von altdeutscher Baukunst (2 Vols.), Leipzig 1820; Moller, G., Denkmäler der deutschen Baukunst (3 Vols.), Darmstadt 1815-21; Heideloff, v.C.A., Die Bauh tten des Mittelalters, 1844. The concept of the mediaeval ‘Bauh tte’ became very important as an ideological driving force for mediaevalists. (Grandien, B., Drömmen on medeltiden, op.cit., 345ff. Germann, G.,Gothic Revival, op.cit., 177ff.)

28.Clemmensen, M., ‘H.B. Storck’ (Necrology), Arkitekten, 1922, 306.

29.Ibid.

30.Storck,H., ‘Om restaurering’, Arkitekten, 1903-04, 454f.: “...men ved ‘Restaurering’ maa naermast forstaas, at man ved det, der foretages, fastholder Monumentets Stil og Charakter. ... Haand i Haand med Restaureringer gaar ofte Rekonstruktioner af forsvundne Partier, men saadanne foretages vel i Reglen nu kun der, hvor BygningensAnlaeg og architektoniske Ordning paa en fölelig Maade lider under Afsavnet af de forsvundne Partier, og hos os vil man endda naeppe foretage dem, uden at det kan ske med Sandsynlighed for at komme det forsvundne nogenlunde naer.”

31.Ottosen, op.cit., 21.

32.‘Lov om Kirkesyn’, 19 February 1861, 3: “Enhver Kirkeskal,saavidtandreHensyntilstededet,vedligeholdes saavel indvendig som udvendig paa en Maade, dep stemmer overeens med dens oprindelige Stiil; ... nar passende Anledning dertil maatte tilbyde sig / skal der /, arbeides hen til, at den föres tilbage til samme Stiil”.

33.Ottosen, op.cit., 21ff.

34.Knapas, op.cit., 104.

35.Ibid, 105.

36.Fischer, D.P., Nidaros Cathedral, Trondheim 1981, 6.

37.Bjerknes,K., Lidén,H-E., The Stave Churches of Kaupanger, 52. In 1840 J.C. Dahl, saved the stave church of Vang in South Norway from demolition by obtaining a bank loan and buying it. The loan was paid back by King Friedrich Wilhelm of Prussia, and the church was brought to Obergebirge, Schlesien (today in Poland). Successively Dahl founded the Society for the Protection of Ancient Monuments, called ‘Foreningen til norsk Fortidminnesmerkers Bevaring’. (1841) The office of the State Conservator (Riksantikvar) was established in 1912.

21.Knapas, M.T., Turun Tuomiokirkon restaurointisuunnitelmatvuosilta1896ja1901. Kansallisia ja kansainvälisiä tavoitteita rakennusmuistomerkkien hoidon alkutaipaleelta, MA. University of Helsinki, Institute of Art History, Unpublished, March 1983, 108.

22.Grandien, B., Drömmen on medeltiden, op.cit., 545.

23.Knapas, M.T., Turun Tuomiokirkon, op.cit., 109.

24.Diz.Enc.Arch., VI, 505.

25.Ottosen, M., Dansk byggningsrestaurerings historie, en indföring, Arkitektskolen i Aarhus, 1984, 9f. Knapas, op.cit., 102.

26.Ottosen, op.cit., 7.

27.Ibid, 10f.

institutions, was appointed on 19 June 1884.

40.Knapas, op.cit., 121.

41.Zachris Topelius (1818-98), one of the most important national-romantic writers of Finland in the nineteenth century, referred to the restoration of Cologne Cathedral in the letters from his European travels, published in Helsingfors Dagblad, in 1857. (Knapas, op.cit., 11.)

42.The publication called: Peintures murales des Chapelles de Notre Dame (1870), was acquired to Turku. (Knapas, op.cit., 18)

43.Heidenstam, V., Modern vandalism, 1894. (Storck, ‘Om Restaurering’, op.cit., 457.

44.Knapas, op.cit., 91.

45.Ibid, 163.

46.Ibid, 165.

47.Ibid, 191.

48.Östergren, S., ‘Care of Cultural Monuments in Sweden’, op.cit. 24f.

49.Verdier, P., ‘Le Service des Monuments historiques, son histoire, organisation, administration, législation (1830-1934)’, Congrés Archéologique de France, XCVIIe session (2 Vols.), Paris 1934, I, 137. Brown, The Care of Ancient Monuments, op.cit., 230ff. Algeria was a Département of France, and thus subject to French legislation.

50.Tschudi-Madsen, S., Restoration andAnti-Restoration, Oslo 1976, 77.

51.A Member of the Parliament declared, 5 December 1888: “Les architectes marchent à la suite d’un homme que’est devenu pour ainsi dire le pontife de leur école, d’un homme d’un immense talent, de M. Viollet-le-Duc, qui a exercé l’influence la plus néfaste sur la conservation de nos monuments historiques en substituant le système de la restitution et de la réfection à celui de la consolidation et de la conservation.” (Verdier, ‘Le Service des Monuments’, op.cit., 153)

52.Verdier, op.cit., 153.

53.France, Anatole, Pierre Nozière, Calmann-Lévy, Editeurs, Paris (n.d.), 178: “Vraiment il y a trop de pierres neuves à Pierrefonds. Je suis persuadé que la restauration entreprise en 1858 par Viollet-le-Duc et terminée sur ses plans, est suffisamment étudiée. Je suis persuadé que le donjon, le château et toutes les défenses estérieures ont repris leur aspect primitif. Meis enfin les vieilles pierres, les vieux témoins, ne sont plus là, et ce n’est plus le château de Louis d’Orléans; c’est la représentation en relief et de grandeur naturelle de ce manoir. Et l’on a détruit des ruines, ce qui est une manière de vandalisme.” Ibid, 243: “Il allait jusqu’à sacrifier des oeuvres vénérables et charmantes et à transformer, comme à Notre-Dame de Paris, la cathédrale vivante en cathédrale abstraite. ...

Il a vécu, et tant qu’il a vécu il s’est transformé. Car le changement est la condition essentielle de la vie. Chaque âge l’a marqué de son empreinte. C’est un livre sur lequel chaque génération a écrit une page. Il ne faut altérer aucune de ces pages. Elles ne sont pas de la même écriture parce qu’elles ne sont pas de la même main. Il est d’une fausse science et d’un mauvais goût de vouloir les ramener à un même type. Ce sont des témoignages divers, mais également véridiques.” See also: France, Anatole, Le Lys rouge, Paris 1923, 92: Speaking of an architect-restorer, named Philippe Decharte, who disagreed with Viollet- le-Duc: “Faire disparaître les anachromismes et ramener un édifice à son unité première, lui semblait und barbarie scientifique aussi redoutable que celle de l’ignorance. Il disait, il répétait sans cesse: ‘C’est un crime que d’effacer les empreintes successives imprimées dans la pierres par la main et l’âme de nos aieux. Les pierres neuves taillées

dans un vieux style sont de faux témoins.’ Il voulait que la tâche de l’architecte archéologue fût bornée à soutenir et à consolider les murailles. Il avait raison.”

54.France,A., Pierre Nozière, op.cit., 240: “Voyez; je suis vieille, mais je suis belle; mes enfants pieux ont brodé sur ma robe des tours, des clochers des pignons dentelés et des beffrois. Je suis une bonne mère; j’enseigne le travail et tous les arts de la paix. Je nourris mes enfants dans mes bras. Puis, leur tâche faite, ils vont, les uns après les autres, dormir à mes pieds, sous cette herbe o— paissent les moutons. Ils passent; mais je reste pour garder leur souvenir. Je suis leur mémoire. C’est pourquoi ils me doivent tout, car l’homme n’est l’homme que parce qu’il se souvient. Mon manteaux a été déchiré et mon sein percé dans les guerres. J’ai reçu des blessures qu’on disait mortelles. Mais j’ai vécu parce que j’ai espéré. Apprenez de moi cette sainte espérance qui sauve la patrie. Pensez en moi pour penser au delà de vous-mêmes. Regardez cette fontaine, cet hôpital, ce marché que les pères ont légués à leurs fils. Travaillez pour vos enfants comme vos aieux ont travaillé pour vous. Chacune de mes pierres vous apporte un bienfait et vous enseigne un devoir. Voyez ma cathédrale, voyez ma maison commune, voyez mon HôtelDieu et vénérez le passé. Mais songez à l’avenir. Vos fils sauront quels joyaux vous aurez enchâssés à votre tour dans ma robe de pierre.”

55.Milsand, J., L’esthétique anglaise: étude du M John Ruskin, Paris 1864.

56.De la Sizeranne, Robert., Ruskin et la religion de la beauté, 1899 (The book was translated into English in the same year, and the seventh French edition was printed in 1907.)

57.Ruskin, J., Les Sept Lampes de l’Architecture, Paris 1899. Achapter from the Sesame and Lilies was published in French traslation in 1895; a chapter from the Wild Crown of Olive in 1898, the whole work soon after this. Unto this Last was translated in 1902.

58.Since 1900 Proust published in Mercure de France: ‘Ruskin à Notre-Dame d’Amiens’. Pierre-Quint, L., Marcel Proust, Paris 1946, 34.

59.Translation by Proust: Ruskin, J., La Bible d’Amiens, 1904.

60.Translation by Proust: Ruskin, J., Sésame et les Lys, 1906.

61.Proust, M., ‘Introduction’, La Bible d’Amiens, 1904: “Mort, il continue à nous éclairer, comme ces étoiles éteintes dont la lumière nous arrive encore, et on peut dire de lui ce qu’il disait à la mort de Turner: ‘C’est par ces yeux, fermés à jamais au fond du tombeau, que des générations qui ne sont pas encore nées verront la nature.’” (Reprinted: Ruskin, J., Les Sept Lampes de l’Architecture, Les Presses d’Aujourd’hui, 1980, 252.)

62.The law: 9 December 1905, Art. 16.: “Classement complémentaire des édifices servant à l’exercise public du

culte, dans lequel devront être compris tous ceux de ces édifices représentant dans leur parties une valeur artistique ou historique.” (Verdier, P., ‘Le Service des Monuments historiques’, op.cit., 168.)

63.The Report of the ‘Commission des Monuments historiques’, 13 March 1914: “Une classification des édifices d’après leur valeur artistique n’entraîneraient pas un changement dans les règles suivies. C’est ainsi que les travaux à faire dans un édifice de dixième ordre qui menace ruine seront toujours exécutés de préférence à des travaux peu urgents dans un monuments plus important.” (Verdier, op.cit., 178)

64.Verdier, op.cit., 178.

65.Toudouze, G., ‘L’impiété des restaurations’, Le Musée, I, Paris 1904, 74: “Comment, en effet, est-il possible de retrouver, deux mille ans écoulés, l’âme évanouie du créateur? Nul génie, même équivalent, ne pourrait refaire ce qu’un autre a fait; et la grande erreur, quand on transforme l’histoire de l’ArtAntique en science, vient précisément de ce qu’on ne peut mettre dans le calcul du théorème cet insaisissable élément: la vision de l’artiste, cette X mysterieuse, cette vibrante personnalité, et son libre arbitre, et son âme d’éloquence, et son esprit de passion qui se rit des règles, des méthodes et des jougs. Retrouver une âme est impossible: le dieu de la sculpture, Michel Ange lui-même, ne le pourrait pas. Et quant à faire restituer les vides d’une statue par un quelconque praticien, ce serait trahir trop complètement le maître qu’on veut glorifier.”

66. Sambon, A., Toudouze, G., ‘La Protestation des écrivains et des artistes contre la restauration du Parthénon’, Le Musée, II, Paris 1905, 1ff.

67.Ibid: “Le Parthénon n’a besoin de rien ni de personne, il peut et doit rester ce qu’il est, ce que l’ont fait l’usure lente du temps et les injures brutales des hommes. Comme tous les chefs-d’oeuvre de l’esprit humain, quels que soient leur patrie ou leur âge, il fait partie intégrante du patrimoine intellectuelle de l’humanité, il est une propriété internationale, dont nous devons empêcher la destruction, mais à laquelle nul ne peut rien changer.”

68.Toudouze, G., ‘Le Parthénon en danger’, Le Musée, II, 1905, 5ff.

69.Rodin, A., ‘Le Parthénon et les Cathedrales’, Le Musée, II, 1905, 66ff.: “Chartres c’est l’archaisme

d’Olympie, Beauvais c’est le splendeur harmonieuse du Parthénon, Reims c’est un soleil couchant, symbole d’Apollon. Faut-il donc vous donner les noms de vos pères grecs pour vous défendre?”

70.Ibid: “Nos Cathédrales, c’est le médecin qui les tue.” In 1914, Rodin published an enlarged version of his article; this was later translated into English: Cathedrals of France, Country Life, 1965.

71.Le Musée, II, 1905, 114ff.

72.‘L’Affaire du Parthénon’, Le Musée, II, 1905, 113f. ‘Internationaler Archäologischer Kongress 7-13.4.1905 in Athen’, Archäologischer Anzeiger, Beiblatt zum Jahrbuch des Archäologischen Instituts, 1905, 119ff: P. Kavvadias was one of those who protested against the intended restorations, maintaining that through these works the authenticity of the monument would be lost. The proposal was also made to create an international association to assist in the documentation of the existing archaeological remains, and also to protect against falsifications. Vasnier, H.A., ‘La question du Parthénon’, Revue Archéologique, VI, 1905, 327ff.: refers to the debate on reconstructions, restorations, and conservation in fragmentary state.

73.Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, 1922, 485. Study for the Restoration of the Parthenon, Ministry of Culture and Sciences, Committee for the Preservation of the Acropolis Monuments, English Summary, Athens 1983, 20.

74.de Vattel, E., The Law of Nations (ed. Ghitty), 1844, 367ff. (Williams, Sharon A., The International and National Protection of Movable Cultural Property. A Comparative Study, New York 1978, 6.)

75.Williams, op.cit., 8ff.

76.Ibid, 16.

77.‘The Hague Convention IV’, 1907, Art.55. (Williams, op.cit., 17f.)

78.Ibid.

79.Garner, J.W., Some Questions of International Law in the European War, 1915, 101; Posner, Public Records under Military Occupation, 1944, 49 Am.Hist.Rev.213. Williams, op.cit., 20. De Naeyer, A., ‘La reconstruction des monuments et des sites en Belgique après la première guerre mondiale’, Monumentum, XX-XXII, 1980, 167ff.

80.The law of 10 May 1919. See De Naeyer, A., ‘La reconstruction des monuments...’ op.cit., 169f.

81.Ibid, 172ff. The Canon R. Lemaire has reported on the debate on the reconstruction in Louvain: Lemaire, R. Chanoine, La reconstruction de Louvain, Rapport présenté au nom de la Commission desAlignements, Louvain 1915.

Lemaire emphasizes the historic and aesthetic values on one hand, on the other he consideres the hygienic and material needs of proper utilization, and the finacial aspects. In the planning of the reconstruction reference was made to the theories of Camillo Sitte, and attention was given on an appropriate relationship of important historic buildings to their environment.

82.Verdier, ‘Le Service des Monuments historiques’, op.cit., 195ff.

83.‘The Sixth International Congress of Architects’, Madrid 1904, Subject II: ‘The Preservation and Restoration of Architectural Monuments’, Recommendations:

“1. Monuments may be divided into two classes, dead monuments, i.e. those belonging to a past civilisation or

serving obsolete purposes, and living monuments, i.e. those which continue to serve the purposes for which they were originally intended.

2.Dead monuments should be preserved only by such strengthening as is indispensable in order to prevent their falling into ruin; for the importance of such a monument consists in its historical and technical value, which disappears with the monument itself.

3.Living monuments ought to be restored so that they may continue to be of use, for in architecture utility is one of the bases of beauty.

4.Such restoration should be effected in the original style of the monument, so that it may preserve its unity, unity of style being also one of the bases of beauty in architecture, and primitive geometrical forms being perfectly reproducible. Portions executed in a different style from that of the whole should be respected, if this style has intrinsic merit and does not destroy the aesthetic balance of the monument.

5.The preservation and restoration of monuments should be entrusted only to architects ‘diplomés par le Gouvernement’, or specially authorised and acting under the artistic, archaeological, and technical control of the State.

6.A society for the preservation of historical and artistic monuments should be established in every country. They might be grouped for common effort and collaborate in the compilation of a general inventory of national and local treasures.” (Journal of the Royal Institute of British Architects, 23 April 1904, 344.)

84.Ibid.

85.An English version of the Conclusions of the meeting in Rome (13-17 October 1930) are published: Mouseion, XIII, 1931, 162ff.

86.The proceedings of the Athens meeting were first published in several issues of the Mouseion, in 1932-33; later these were collected in one volume, Les Monuments d’Art et d’Histoire, Paris 1933.

87.The ‘Athens Charter’ 1931 (Les Monuments d’Art et d’Histoire, op.cit., 448ff.):

“A. - Conclusions of the Athens Conference I. Doctrines. General Principles.

The Conference heard the statement of the general principles and doctrines relating to the protection of monuments.

Whatever may be the variety of concrete cases, each of which are open to a different solution, the Conference noted that there predominates in the different countries represented a general tendency to abandon restorations in toto and to avoid the attendant dangers by initiating a system of regular and permanent maintenance calculated to ensure the preservation of the buildings.

When, as the result of decay or destruction, restoration appears to be indispensable, it recommends that the historic and artistic work of the past should be respected, without excluding the style of any given period.

The Conference recommends that the occupation of buildings, which ensures the continuity of their life, should be maintained but that they should be used for a purpose which respects their historic or artistic character.

II. Administrative and Legislative Measures Regarding Historical Monuments.

The Conference heard the statement of legislative measures devised to protect monuments of artistic, historic or scientific interest and belonging to the different countries.

It unanimously approved the general tendency which, in this connection, recognises a certain right of the community in regard to private ownership.

It noted that the differences existing between these legislative measures were due to the difficulty of reconciling public law with the rights of individuals.

Consequently, while approving the general tendency of these measures, the Conference is of opinion that they should be in keeping with local circumstances and with the trend of public opinion so that the least possible opposition may be encountered, due allowance being made for the sacrifices which the owners of property may be called upon to make in the general interest.

It recommends that the public authorities in each country be empowered to take conservatory measures in cases of emergency.

It earnestly hopes that the Intenational Museums Office will publish a repertory and a comparative table of the legislative measures in force in the different countries and that this information will be kept up to date.

III. Aesthetic Enhancement of Ancient Monuments.

The Conference recommends that, in the construction of buildings, the character and external aspect of the cities in which they are to be erected should be respected, especially in the neighbourhood of ancient monuments, where the surroundings should be given special consideration. Even certain groupings and certain particularly picturesque perspective treatment should be preserved.

A study should also be made of the ornamental vegetation most suited to certain monuments or groups of monuments from the point of view of preserving their ancient character.

It specially recommends the suppression of all forms of publicity, of the erection of unsightly telegraph poles and the exclusion of all noisy factories and even of tall shafts in the neighbourhood of artistic and historic monuments.

IV. Restoration Materials.

The experts heard various communications concerning the use of modern materials for the consolidation of ancient monuments.

The approved the judicious use of all the resources at the disposal of modern technique and more especially of reinforced concrete.

They specified that this work of consolidation should whenever possible be concealed in order that the aspect and character of the restored monuments may be preserved.

They recommended their adoption more particularly in cases where their use makes it possible to avoid the dangers of dismantling and reinstating the portions to be preserved.

V. The Deterioration of Ancient Monuments.

The Conference noted that, in the conditions of present day life, monuments throughout the world were being threatened to an ever-increasing degree by atmospheric agents.

Apart from the customary precautions and the methods successfully applied in the preservation of monumental statuary in current practice, it was impossible, in view of the complexity of cases and with the knowledge at present available, to formulate any general rules.

The Conference recommends:

1)That, in each country, the architects and curators of monuments should collaborate with specialists in the physical, chemical and natural sciences with a view to determining the methods to be adopted in specific cases;

2)That the International Museums Office should keep itself informed of the work being done in each country in this field and that mention should be made thereof in the publications of the Office.

With regard to the preservation of monumental sculpture, the Conference is of opinion that the removal of works of art from the surroundings for which they were designed is, in principle, to be discouraged. It recommends, by way of precaution, the preservation of original models whenever these still exist or, if this proves impossible, the taking of casts.

VI. The Technique of Conservation.

The Conference is gratified to note that the principles and technical considerations set forth in the different detailed communications are inspired by the same idea, namely:

In the case of ruins, scrupulous conservation is necessary, and steps should be taken to reinstate any original fragments that may be recovered (anastylosis), whenever this is possible; the new materials used for this purpose should in all cases be recognizable. When the preservation of ruins brought to light in the course of excavations is found to be impossible, the Conference recommends that they be buried, accurate records being of course taken before filling-in operations are undertaken.

It should be unnecessary to mention that the technical work undertaken in connection with the excavation and preservation of ancient monuments calls for close collaboration between the archaeologist and the architect.

With regard to other monuments, the experts unanimously agreed that, before any consolidation or partial restoration is undertaken, a thorough analysis should be made of the defects and the nature of the decay of these monuments. They recognised that each case needed to be treated individually.

VII. The Conservation of Monuments and International Collaboration.

a) Technical and moral co-operation.

The Conference, convinced that the question of the conservation of the artistic and archaeological property of mankind is one that interests the community of the States, which are wardens of civilisation,

Hopes that the States, acting in the spirit of the Covenant of the League of Nations, will collaborate with each other on an ever-increasing scale and in a more concrete manner with a view to furthering the preservation of artistic and historic monuments;

Considers it highly desirable that qualified institutions and associations should, without in any manner whatsoever prejudicing international public law, be given an opportunity of manifesting their interest in the protection of works of art in which civilisation has been expressed to the highest degree and which would seem to be threatened with destruction;

Expresses the wish that requests to attain this end, submitted to the Intellectual Co-operation Organisation of the League of Nations, be recommended to the earnest attention of the States.

It will be for the International Committee on Intellectual Co-operation, after an enquiry conducted by the International Museums Office and after having collected all relevant information, more particularly from the National Committee on Intellectual Co-operation concerned, to express an opinion on the expediency of the stepss to be taken and on the procedure to be followed in each individual case.

The members of the Conference, after having visited in the course of their deliberations and during the study cruise which they were able to make on this occasion, a number of excavation sites and ancient Greek monuments, unanimously paid a tribute to the Greek Government, which, for many years past, has been itself responsible for extensive works and, at the same time, has accepted the collaboration of archaeologists and experts from every country.

The members of the Conference there saw an example of activity which can but contribute to the realisation of the aims of intellectual co-operation, the need for which manifested itself during their work.

b) The role of education in the respect of monuments.

The Conference, firmly convinced that the best guarantee in the matter of the preservation of monuments and works of art derives from the respect and attachment of the peoples themselves;

Considering that these feelings can very largely be promoted by appropriate action on the part of public authorities;

Recommends that educators should urge children and young people to abstain from disfiguring monuments of every description and that they should teach them to take a greater and more general interest in the protection of these concrete testimonies of all ages of civilisation.

c) Value of international documentation. The Conference expresses the wish that:

1) Each country, or the institutions created or recognised comtetent for this purpose, publish an inventory of ancient monuments, with photographs and explanatory notes:

2) Each country constitute official records which shall contain all documents relating to its historic monuments;

3) Each country deposit copies of its publications on artistic and historic monuments with the International Museums Office;

4) The Office devote a portion of its publications to articles on the general processes and methods employed in the preservation of historic monuments;

5) The Office study the best means of utilising the information so centralised.

B. - Proceedings of the Conference on the Anastylosis of the

Acropolitan Monuments.

It had been arranged that one of the sessions of the Conference of the International Museums Office would be held on the Acropolis and the members of the Conference all the more appreciated the facilities accorded to them in this connection when it was learned that M. Balanos, Director of Works on the Acropolis, kindly announced that he would hold himself at the disposal of the delegates to furnish them with any information they might need regarding the works in progress and to enable them to ask detailed questions and express their views.

This session was held on the morning of Sunday October 25th, under the chairmanship of M. Karo. During the first part of this meeting, the members of the Conference heard a statement by M. Balanos on the work of reinstatement already carried out at the Propylaea as well as at the Parthenon.

In the second part of his statement, M. Balanos explained the nature of the works to be undertaken in the later programme and concluded by asking the members of the Conference to express their personal opinion on this programme. Under the guidance of M. Karo, the

delegates took part in a long exchange of views, chiefly on the following points: a) Re-erection of the northern colonnade of the Parthenon and of the southern peristyle. b) The use of cement as a coating for the substituted drums. c) Choice of metals to be used for cramp irons and dowels. d)Advisability of using casts as complementary to anastylosis. e) Protection of the frieze against weather.

In regard to the first point, the members of the Conference unanimously approved of the reinstatement of the northern colonnade of the Parthenon as well as of the partial re-erection of the southern peristyle according to M. Balanos’ plans, which provide for no restoration beyond the mere reinstatement of the columns.

With reference to the use of cement as a coating for the substituted drums, the experts stressed the special character of the works effected at the Parthenon and, while noting the satisfactory results of the preliminary operations carried out under the supervision of M. Balanos in this special case, refrained form expressing their general opinion on this question.

The choice of metal to be used for cramp-irons and dowels engaged the attention of the experts, who took advantage of this opportunity to explain the experiments each had made in this matter. M. Balanos stated that, in the case of the Acropolis, iron could be used without any disadvantage owing to the precautions taken and the special climatic conditions of the country. Certain of the experts, while recognising that the reasons advanced by M. Balanos justified the use of iron in work undertaken on the Acropolis, recalled the regrettable consequence which sometimes ensued when iron was used in connection with the preservation of stones and expressed their preference for metals less subject to decay.

As regards the fourth point raised by M. Balanos concerning the use of casts as a complement to anastylosis, certain experts recommended that the greatest caution should be exercised and emphasised the necessity of carrying out trials beforehand.

In so far as the protection of the frieze against weather was concerned, the members of the Conference expressed their approval of the measures advocated by M. Balanos, which consisted in

protecting the frieze by a suitable roof.”

88.Ibid, Art.IV.

89.Ibid, Art.V.

90.Ibid, Art.VI.

91.Study for the Restoration of the Parthenon, op.cit.,

23ff.

92.‘Resolution Adopted by the International Committee on Intellectual Co-operation on July 23rd, 1932’, Les Monuments d’Art et d’Histoire, op.cit., 454.

21.1 The Second World War

On the first of September 1939, the German army attacked Poland, and initiated the Second World War. This was to involve the whole of Europe as well as other continents, and it ended only in 1945 after some 55millionpeoplehaddied,andaftertwoatomicbombs had been dropped on Japan. Concerning historic buildings and historic towns, the War had disastrous effects - on a much larger scale than that of the First World War. In France alone, about 460.000 buildings had been destroyed; out of 8.000 listed buildings of national importance 1270 had been damaged, half of them seriously, and among them were buildings such as Rouen Cathedral. Leaving aside the enormous losses suffered among Italian cultural treasures, many important historic towns had suffered; among these

were London, Berlin, Dresden, Warsaw, Saint-Malo, and Florence - the list is endless.

During the war 75% of the city of Warsaw was destroyed, and 95% of its historic buildings lost. On 1 February 1945, Warsaw was again declared the capital of Poland, and an office for its reconstruction was set up. Following a decision of December 1944, the historic core of the city was rapidly rebuilt in the same form as it had been before the war, being mostly completed by 1953. The reconstruction, which was justified by its national significance for the identity of the Polish people, was carried out by reference to measured drawings, prints, paintings (such as

Figure 330. The centre of Warsaw rebuilt after destruction in the Second World War

those by Bernardo Bellotto), and other pre-war documents. The new Warsaw, however, corresponds to the old one only externally; few interiors have been reconstructed, and various changes were made in order to accommodate modern facilities. Still, the effort of rebuilding Warsaw as a national monument has been universally recognized as a unique event and of special significance, and as Stanislav Lorentz, the Director General of Museums and Protection of Historic Monuments, stated “by reconstructing historic buildings we at least save the authentic remains of the original edifices”. (1)

At the same time reconstruction work started all over Europe, and this was followed by many debates about the way it should be carried out; how far a replica of what had been lost was acceptable, and when one should use the language of modern architecture. Similar problems had been raised after the destruction of the First World War, when for example in Belgium, it had been considered that the whole country would have become a cemetery if the ruins had been left untouched. (2) Answers to this problem were sought at both extremes as well as in different compromises. In England, the ruins of the mediaevalcathedralofCoventrywereleft‘untouched’ as a memorial, and a modern cathedral was erected on its side. (3) In London, the area around St. Paul’s was rebuilt completely modern, leaving only some of the

surviving churches and secular buildings standing in the modern surroundings. Although an attempt was made to follow the old street lines, the scale of the new construction outweighs the old.

In Belgium, the damages caused by the Second World War were less extensive than those caused by the First. Attention was given more to restoration and cleaning of historic buildings, and, for the first time, the Government was able to provide a coherent planning structure. In restoration, it became fashionable to remove renderings, and to ‘clean’ the surfaces down to the structural brick or stone. This was apparent in the restorations in Louvain in the 1950s by Professor Raymond Lemaire, nephew of Canon Lemaire and one of the future authors of the Venice Charter. While emphasizing the respect for the original material, it was thought justified to remove later phases, if of little interest compared to the earlier ones, such as removing the eighteenthcentury rendering in a church interior in order to expose the early thirteenth-century limestone walling and improve the appreciation of the original spatial quality of the building. (4) Similar principles were applied in the project of the Grand Beguinage, an area of over six hectares south-west of the historic centre of Louvain, acquired by the Catholic University of

Figure 331. The centre of London rebuilt after destruction in the Second World War