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МІНІСТЕРСТВО ОСВІТИ І НАУКИ УКРАЇНИ

УКРАЇНСЬКА ІНЖЕНЕРНО-ПЕДАГОГІЧНА АКАДЕМІЯ

КАФЕДРА ІНОЗЕМНИХ МОВ

Англійська мова

Навчально-методичний посібник для проведення практичних занять з англійської мови зі студентами ІІ курсу заочної форми навчання

для інженерних

та інженерно-педагогічних

спеціальностей

Затверджено

Науково-Методичною Радою

Української інженерно -

педагогічної академії

Протокол № __6__

від 22 березня 2011р.

Харків 2011

УДК: 881.111

Англійська мова. Навчально-методичний посібник для проведення практичних занять з англійської мови зі студентами ІІ курсу заочної форми навчання.

Упорядники: Самойлова С.Л., Леонова О.В., Жигалко С.Е. – Харків: УІПА, 2011. – 112с.

Запропонований навчально-методичний посібник призначений для студентів ІІ курсу інженерних та інженерно-педагогічних спеціальностей заочної форми навчання. У посібнику підібрані тексти науково-технічного змісту для вивчаючого та ознайомлюючого читання. Тексти забезпечені додатковими вправами, які допоможуть студентам добре зрозуміти зміст та засвоїти лексичний та граматичний матеріал. Головна мета даного навчально-методичного посібника – навчити студентів працювати зі словником, читати літературу англійською мовою з тим, щоб на основі набутих знань, вмінь та навичок здобувати з прочитаного корисну інформацію.

Відповідальний випусковий: ст. викл. Леонова О.В.

Рецензент: ст. викл. кафедри іноземних мов Романенко М.В.

© С.Л. Самойлова

© О.В. Леонова

© С.Е. Жигалко

© УІПА

I Семестр

UNIT 1

Завдання 1. Прочитайте текст та перекладіть його українською мовою.

HEAVY INDUSTRY

Industry is a single complex, its constituent parts being closely interwoven and interlinked. They cater for the needs of society and development of other branches of economy. For instance, power machine construction cannot operate without metal-making, or chemical industry, or electronics. The country needs heavy industry products — machines, tractors, aircraft, pipes, chemicals. But people also cannot do without bread, meat, fabrics, foot-wear, homes, books.

All the branches of industry being of major importance, the country cannot develop either the industry manufacturing means of production, or those producing consumer goods. Yet, if we classify industry into various branches we shall see that some of them are of prime importance.

First of all we shall distinguish heavy industry which manufactures producer goods (capital goods), and light industry, the latter supplying the people with consumer goods. Both heavy industry and light industry are necessary for the development of any country.

Heavy industry comprises first and foremost power engineering and electrical industry. Vitally important are also such fields as engineering or machine-building, machine-tool construction and ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, mining and chemical industry. Industry with all these branches constitutes the basis of every economy.

All the essentials of economy construction in our country are closely connected with the structure of heavy industry and the level of its development. Providing all the branches of economy with the means and implements of labour, heavy industry exerts a direct influence on the growth of productivity and, consequently, on the standard of living of the people.

Practice has proved that the greater the availability of steel, machines, electric power, chemicals and fuel, the more rapid is the development of light industry, food industry and agriculture, consumer goods and the scale of housing construction.

So a highly developed heavy industry is the first essential for the build-up of an advanced economy.

Our industry has a rich material and technical base: thousands of plants, factories, mines, quarries and power stations. It makes possible the development of science and technology. Industry comprises the design and manufacture of the major types of machines and plants, and of original transfer lines, instruments and control devices.

The development of such basic industries as power engineering, metal manufacture, mechanical engineering, metal working, chemical and petrochemical industries increases the output of the means of production, the basis of national economy.

Heavy industry is the foundation which makes it possible to speed up the production of consumer goods.

Vocabulary notes

  1. to cater for — постачати, забезпечувати

  2. to do without — обходитися без

  3. of prime importance — першочергового значення

  4. first and foremost — передусім, насамперед

Завдання 2. Дайте відповіді на запитання до тексту.

  1. What does heavy industry manufacture?

  2. What does light industry supply the people with?

  3. Which of the industries is more important?

  4. Why is the development of the country closely connected with industrialization?

  5. What can you say about our industry today?

  6. What industries play a key role in the modernization programme?

  7. What is the main task of our economy today?

  8. What are the characteristic features of our industry at present?

  9. Why is the progress of industry important?

Завдання 3. Підберіть до поданих слів

а) синоніми:

close

to raise

foundation

field

to increase

labour

significance

tight

branch

building

productivity

to control

work

basis

impact

efficiency

construction

importance

to operate

cornerstone

essential

influence

б) антоніми:

rich

secondary

slow

impossible

highly

minor

prime

poor

heavy

backward

possible

low

major

rapid

powerful

identical

advanced

light

to speed up

powerless

various

to slow down

Завдання 4. Знайдіть у тексті еквіваленти до наступних українських словосполучень:

єдиний комплекс

важка промисловість

галузь промисловості

засоби виробництва

життєво важливий

матеріально-технічна база

розвиток науки і техніки

основа національної економіки

знаряддя праці

здійснювати безпосередній вплив

Завдання 5. Поєднайте слова лівого та правого стовпчика, щоб утворити словосполучення:

machine

programme

heavy

device

consumer

line

power

goods

control

engineering

modernization

building

transfer

industry

Завдання 6. Підберіть тлумачення до наданих слів.

  1. Industry

  1. length of textile material

  1. country

  1. a flying machine of any type

  1. fabric

  1. a state with its land and population

  1. mine

  1. branch of manufacture

  1. aircraft

  1. a deep hole in the ground from which minerals are taken

UNIT 2

Завдання 1. Прочитайте текст та перекладіть його українською мовою.

Engineering — the mainstay of heavy industry

Engineering (machine-building) is the largest branch of any industry. Engineering and metal-working have a greater output than any other industry. Their enterprises employ more than one-third of the total industrial manpower and account for one-fourth of the fixed productive capital.

The machine is known to be the major and efficient means of labour in modern production. In one form or another it is employed in all avenues of technical progress, including mechanization, automation, chemical engineering, electricity and atomic energy.

The machine-building industry is known to be able to produce various kinds of machinery and machine-tools in sufficient numbers to meet the country's requirements. Every year, our designers and machine-builders bring out tens of hundreds of new types and makes of machines and equipment — giant turbogenerators and high-precision machine-tools, the latest foundry equipment and automatic devices, diesel locomotives and powerful building machinery, precision instruments, electronic computing machines and nuclear reactors, and what not.

Our engineering has attained a high level of development in such branches as instrument making, electric and other power equipment, lathes and motor vehicles.

The output of railway cars, electric and diesel locomotives, grain combines and tractors, among other machines, is known to be very high.

The engineering industry is characterized by such features as: increased capacities and speeds of machinery, the replacement of mechanical control systems by electrical and hydraulic ones, simplification of machinery design by combining transmission and driving gears, a steadily increasing use of auxiliary and automatic devices, and the introduction of programme control techniques on a mass scale.

Numerically controlled machines based on microprocessors and microcomputers are being introduced on a large scale.

The electro-chemical, radio-electric, machine-tool and instrument-making engineering develop at an accelerated pace.

The engineering industry is known to play a key role in the modernization programme, in the production of new generation of machines and equipment and intensification of the whole economy.

Automation of production (producing automatic and semi-automatic machinery, machine-tools, numerically controlled machines based on microprocessors aHd microcomputers, installing transfer lines) is a key precondition for the building of the material and technical base of economy. Present-day and future engineering is sure to be linked with the main task of engineering: to "teach" machines to operate without man's presence. Computers of the first generations are being replaced by machines of the fourth and fifth generations based on microprocessors and microcomputers with miniaturized integrated circuits.

To raise the standard of living in our country our industry must accelerate the output of such commodities as movie cameras, radio and TV-sets, refrigerators, washing machines and others.

Vocabulary notes

  1. to account for — звітувати, відповідати (за що-н.)

  2. to meet requirements — задовольняти потреби

  3. makes of machines — конструкції машин

  4. numerically controlled (NC) — з ЧПУ (числовим програмним управлінням)

Завдання 2. Дайте відповіді на запитання до тексту.

  1. Why is engineering called the mainstay of heavy industry?

  2. What does machine-building industry produce?

  3. What branches of engineering are highly developed in our country?

  4. What are the characteristic features of our engineering industry?

  5. What does automation of production facilitate?

  6. What is present-day and future engineering linked with?

  7. The output of what products has our engineering industry accelerated?

  8. What are our tasks in engineering industry?

Завдання 3. Знайдіть у тексті еквіваленти до наступних українських словосполучень:

всі напрямки технічного прогресу

машинобудівна промисловість

приладобудування

високоточний верстат

конструкції машин

людські ресурси промисловості

система механічного управління

засоби з програмним управлінням

лінії передачі

програма модернізації

верстат з ЧПУ

матеріально-технічна база

Завдання 4. Перекладіть українською мовою наступні словосполучення та знайдіть їх у тексті:

to raise the standard of living

to meet the country’s requirement

to play a key role

to operate without man’s presence

to introduce on a large scale

to produce various kinds of machinery

to accelerate the output of commodities

Завдання 5. Поєднавши слово “engineering” з потрібним англійським словом утворіть еквіваленти до наступних українських словосполучень:

машинобудування

сonstruction

атомна енергетика

automotive

ядерна техніка

chemical

енергетика

atomic power

радіотехніка

electrical

електротехніка

power

техніка управління

industrial

цивільне будівництво

radio

хімічна технологія

nuclear

організація виробництва

management

будівельна техніка

civil

автотракторна техніка

mechanical

Завдання 6. Утворіть речення з наступних слів.

  1. very important, engineering, branch of industry, is, a.

  2. has attained, of machine-building, modern engineering, of development, various branches, in, a high level.

  3. of production, for the building, of, automation, of economy, is, the material and technical base, a key precondition.

  4. will raise, of, engineering, the standard of living, the progress, of the people.

UNIT 3

Завдання 1. Прочитайте текст та перекладіть його українською мовою.

PROBLEM OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Each year several thousand mechanisms, instruments and devices of various kinds are introduced into production.

The complexity and precision of modern machines and mechanisms have increased so rapidly that the technological servicing of their designing and production is a very complicated problem. Their quality and reliability depend upon many scientific disciplines, among them the science of materials. This might well be called the age of materials science.

It is very important that specialists should have information on the properties of materials subjected to most severe conditions of temperature, loading, corrosion, etc.

The rate of our progress in such different fields as space research, nuclear power engineering, in such technologies as laser and plasma technologies, powder metallurgy, self-spreading high-temperature synthesis, and others would be impossible without a complete knowledge of the properties of various engineering materials, without the development of new materials and old materials with new properties.

A deep and versatile knowledge of the properties of engineering materials would not only be needed by engineers and engineer-designers to prevent machine breakage, failure of structures, but such knowledge would be also necessary in order that these materials should be used most economically. It is a fact that some materials are available in insufficient quantities and the more effective use of new substitute materials should be made.

Modern industry requires materials capable of working in diverse conditions. Research establishments are in constant search of such materials, for example, studying optical strength with the help of a laser beam, testing building materials for thermal shock, etc. They have developed many alloys, ceramics or plastics reinforced with metal, glass, etc. Such materials find application in all spheres of technology, science and in everyday life.

It was only at the beginning of this century that research began in the physics of strength of materials, and the materials science appeared. The problem of properties of materials is hidden deep in the mysteries of atomic and molecular structure, and it took a long time before they could be mastered. The materials science has led to the development of many new materials having better engineering properties. Scientists work on the preparation and examination of materials consisting of individual elements or combination of elements from most of the periodic table. New elements have been created.

Every substance in the universe is made up of limitless combinations of 92 atoms. Out of them can be made anything known to and millions of things that man has not yet discovered. Chemistry now takes natural resources of the universe to produce a great variety of entirely new substances. Nature has* neglected to make some things man needs, such as superheat- and super-pressure-resistant materials and translucent and much stronger materials which are now very much needed to make better machines and instruments. Since nature does not have these vital things man should create them. And he is doing it now with the help of modern chemistry and materials science. For instance, man has created marvelous polymers as far as durability and thermal stability are concerned. The chemistry of polymers holds promise of fantastic progress in the near future. The list of things chemistry has learned to make reads like a fairy-tale.

In selecting the most suitable material and in determining their properties, the engineer-designer should widely use the knowledge of chemistry and materials science.

Vocabulary notes

  1. engineering material — інженерно-будівельний матеріал

  2. materials science (science of materials) — матеріалознавство

  3. self-spreading high-temperature synthesis — саморозповсюджувальний високотемпературний синтез

  4. thermal shock — тепловий (термічний) удар

Завдання 2. Дайте відповіді на запитання до тексту.

  1. What do quality and reliability of engineering products depend upon?

  2. Why might this age be called the age of materials science?

  3. Why is it necessary for an engineer to know the properties of materials?

  4. In what fields of engineering is the knowledge of engineering materials especially important?

  5. What can happen if the properties of materials are not taken into account by the designer?

  6. What is the materials science concerned with?

  7. What is materials science based on?

  8. What engineering materials have been developed by modern materials science?

  9. What are the fields of application of polymers?

  10. What scientific achievements help materials science?

Завдання 3. Знайдіть у тексті наступні словосполучення та складіть з ними власні речення:

many scientific disciplines

nuclear power engineering

deep and versatile knowledge

substitute materials

to work in diverse conditions

to be in constant search

to find application

strength of materials

to select suitable material

entirely new substances

Завдання 4. Знайдіть у тексті англійські еквіваленти наступним словосполученням:

впроваджувати у виробництво

матеріалознавство

технічне обслуговування

надійність

складна проблема

властивості матеріалів

піддавати суворим умовам

запобігати поломки машини

довговічність

термічна стійкість

пластмаса, зміцнена металом

Завдання 5. Підберіть до поданих слів з тексту

а) синоніми:

complicated

total

diverse

proper

marvelous

broad

suitable

fantastic

complete

complex

wide

different

б) антоніми:

better

simplicity

new

possible

insufficient

short

complexity

worse

rapidly

similar

impossible

slowly

various

old

long

sufficient

Завдання 6. Утворіть з наданих слів назви галузей або наук:

chemistry of

metallurgy

power

science

powder

synthesis

space

technology

materials

polymers

high-temperature

materials

plasma

research

strength of

engineering

UNIT 4

Завдання 1. Прочитайте текст та перекладіть його українською мовою.

ELECTRONICS

Electronics is the science of electronic phenomena, devices and systems. It describes and applies the flow of electrons emitted from solids or liquids passing through vacuum, gases or semiconductors. Electronics as a science studies the properties of electrons, the laws of their motion, the laws of the transformation of various kinds of energy through the media of electrons. The basic elements in electronics are the electron tube and the transistor.

Although electronics is properly regarded as only a section of electrical technology, electronic techniques are applied in many fields, including industry, communication, defence and entertaining. Due to its versatility it becomes increasingly difficult to draw clear dividing lines between electronics and other branches of electronical technology.

While physical electronics is the science of electronic processes, industrial electronics deals with the technology of design, construction and application of electronic devices. The industrial applications of electronics include control gauging, counting and measuring, speed regulations, and many others.

The invention of electronic device is known to have become a new important phase in the development of electrical engineering. It considerably enlarges the application of electrical energy for various industrial purposes. The invention of the vacuum tube made radiobroadcasting possible and later on — telecasting. The researches in the field of electronics gave us radar devices, computers, tape recorders, betatron and a lot of medical tools. Semiconductor devices which have replaced electron tubes reduce the size of instruments.

A great advance in electronics is considered to be connected with the appearance of the transistor. The use of the transistor is likely to be the first step in miniaturization of electronic devices and has increased the range of their application, The introduction of the transistor in 1948 is supposed to be the beginning of the evolution of microelectronics which led in the late 1970s to the development of large-scale integrated (LSI) circuits. Now hundreds of circuits can be packed on to one square inch and there seems to be no limit to it. The technology of so-called molecular epitaxy is the best proof of this suggestion.

Electronics is evident to have made a great contribution to automation. It has extended the range of automatic control in large-scale industrial operations and made the processing of information rapid. Electronic computers have provided the basis for the construction of automatic lines, automated units, shops and whole plants, tools with programmed control, robots and manipulators.

The steering of big ships, jet planes, interplanetary rockets is controlled by electronic devices. Radio-electronic systems ensure reliable communication with space stations at distances amounting to scores of millions of kilometres. Hundreds of electronic devices perform various tasks on board every satellite and spaceship. Electronics has penetrated into all the spheres of human activity from household appliances to artificial intelligence and search of outerspace civilizations.

Such advantages of electronic devices as microscopic size, high speed, low cost and reliability are likely to have no competitor. No wonder electronic technology is the most dynamic technology of the present industrial age. Electronics is sure to make still greater progress in the nearest future and help humanity gain new victories in science and engineering.

Vocabulary notes

  1. electrical engineering — електротехніка

  2. to draw (clear) dividing lines (between) — провести (чіткі) межі (між)

  3. range of application — межі (діапазон) застосування

  4. large-scale integrated circuit (LSI) — велика інтегральна схема, BIC

Завдання 2. Дайте відповіді на запитання до тексту.

  1. What is electronics?

  2. What does physical electronics deal with?

  3. What does industrial electronics deal with?

  4. What made radio broadcasting and telecasting possible?

  5. What can reduce the size of instrument?

  6. What is a great advance in electronics connected with?

  7. When was the transistor introduced?

  8. How is electronics connected with automation?

  9. Where are electronic devices and equipment applied?

  10. What is the future of electronics?

Завдання 3. Визначте, вірні чи ні наступні твердження.

  1. Electronics is the science of electronic phenomena, devices and systems.

  2. Electronics as a science studies the protons.

  3. Electronic techniques cannot be used in entertaining.

  4. The invention of electronic device became an important phase in development of electrical engineering.

  5. The researches in electronics gave us very few useful devices.

  6. The introduction of the transistor was a revolution in electronics.

  7. Electronics was never connected with automation.

  8. Electronic technology is the most dynamic technology of the present industrial age.

Завдання 4. Дайте українські еквіваленти наступним словосполученням:

electronic phenomena

flow of electrons

electron tube

glass vacuum tube

physical electronics

industrial electronics

electronic device

integrated circuit

household appliances

artificial intelligence.

Завдання 5. Знайдіть у тексті англійські еквіваленти наступним словосполученням:

властивості електронів

різні види енергії

галузі електронної технології

електронні процеси

застосування електронних приладів

винайдення електронного приладу

застосування електричної енергії

різні промислові потреби

обробка інформації

переваги електронних приладів.

Завдання 6. Виберіть до наданих слів

а) синоніми

transformation

main

various

many-sidedness

basic

quick

many

to carry out

versatility

advance

rapid

changing

to ensure

a lot of

progress

to guarantee

to perform

different

б) антоніми

difficult

past

various

easy

present

smaller

dynamic

to reduce

to enlarge

static

greater

similar

UNIT 5

Завдання 1. Прочитайте текст та перекладіть його українською мовою.

AUTOMATION AND LABOUR

It is a matter of common knowledge nowadays that the principal direction of the present-day scientific and technological progress consists in the revolution of mechanized forms of work through the automation of production.

Quite recently, only some decades ago, even the words "automation", "automatic control" seldom appeared on the pages of the press or scientific publications. In the early forties the position radically changed. Soon automatic control was recognized throughout the world to be a new, progressive, independent branch of science and engineering. Today one cannot imagine technical progress without automation.

Automation may be defined as "the accomplishment of a job by an integrated mechanism with a minimum assistance of any kind". In fact, automation is the integration of four independent compounds which have been linked together into a single process. These integral parts of automation are: transfer machining, automatic assembly, communication engineering and control engineering.

Emphasis should be made that automation is not a mere extention of mechanization, but a qualitatively new step in technological development. It brought about radical changes in the technological nature of the relationship between man and machine. In mechanization the function of the direct effect on the object of labour was transferred to the working mechanism. Here, man remained the principal agent of the technological process. He retained the functions of control, regulation, maintaining machines and direct intervention in production process. With the advent of automation these functions were transferred to the mechanical device'. The automation of production enables man to operate machines with the help of other machines. Now machines discharge not only production but also intellectual, and in some cases even physiological functions.

Our country has many thousands of comprehensively mechanized and automated enterprises and workshops. The mechanized and automated production lines replace or lighten the work of a tremendous number of workers. All the hydro-power plants in the country have been completely automated. Annually hundreds of automated control systems go into operation at industrial, agricultural, communication, trade and transport enterprises and organizations.

Modern means of automation make it possible to link up in a single complex the whole technological chain: machine designing, equipment and rigging, control of a technological process, control of the whole enterprise. This has been made possible due to the extensive development and mass production of new types of computer technology, from large computers to microprocessors.

Needless to say, comprehensive automation calls for material inputs and time. But the economic effect from the release of "living labour", the intensification of production, the higher quality of output and more flexible technology make up for the inputs, while, on the social plane, it gives opportunities for creative work by both the makers of this technology and its users.

Thus, now the main trend in automation is developing not merely automatic machines, but entire technological processes and systems whose functioning excludes the direct involvement of men.

Such automated systems, called flexible manufacturing systems (FMS) are regarded by many experts as being the best way to meet the demands of industry. They consider the FMS to be the future of the automated factory, or at least the minimally manned factory.

The application of FMS requires advanced technical know-how.

Завдання 2. Дайте відповіді на запитання до тексту.

  1. What is the principal direction of the present-day scientific and technological progress?

  2. Can one imagine technical progress today without automation?

  3. What is automation?

  4. Did the word “automatic control” appear recently or long ago?

  5. What is the difference between mechanization and automation?

  6. What are the integral parts of automation?

  7. What does modern automation mean?

  8. What is the basis of automation?

  9. What is the economic effect of automation?

Завдання 3. Знайдіть у тексті еквіваленти наступним українським словосполученням:

задовольнити потреби промисловості

автоматичне складання

техніка зв’язку

техніка управління

технологічний розвиток

експлуатація машин

всебічна автоматизація

інтенсифікація виробництва

головна тенденція в автоматизації

пряме втручання людей

Завдання 4. Визначте, яке слово пропущене в наступних реченнях.

  1. In mechanization man remained the _____ agent of the technological process.

  2. Man performed the function of control and direct _____ in production process.

  3. Our country has many comprehensively automated _____ and workshops.

  4. All the hydro-power _____ in the country have been completely automated.

  5. Modern means of automation make possible to link up in a single _____ the whole technological chain.

  6. Comprehensive automation calls for _____ inputs and time.

  7. The application of FMS requires _____ technical know-how.

  8. Automation is a qualitatively new _____ in technological development.

Завдання 5. Підберіть до наданих слів

а) синоніми

principle

assistance

present day

influence

radically

today

effect

whole

entire

main

help

fundamentally

б) антоніми

seldom

long ago

minimum

often

future

to include

independent

impossible

to exclude

indirect

direct

dependant

possible

maximum.

Завдання 6. Підберіть слова, щоб утворити словосполучення:

transport

technology

technological

functions

computer

mechanism

physiological

process

working

control

minimum

enterprise

automatic

assistance

UNIT 6

Завдання 1. Прочитайте текст та перекладіть його українською мовою.

SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS

In the course of his historic development man gradually learned to use the forces of nature and created our civilization. He managed to change the earth beyond recognition: inhabited vast expanses of wilderness, constructed roads, plants and irrigated deserts. Man is also the creator of the innumerable spiritual treasures of mankind: the wonderful works of art, literature and science. All this became possible thanks to man's labour, his ability to learn, to understand and explain different phenomena of the material world.

In this progressive advance of man a particularly significant role belongs to energy.

First man learned to use the energy of fire. Many thousand years passed before man learned to use the energy of wind, water and steam, and later – electricity. For producing electricity man discovered and began to use different energy resources: coal, oil, gas, peat, shale, hydropower and nuclear energy.

Not so long ago man invented and put into service the steam engine and steam locomotives. Then he attached the steam engine to looms and to various wheels and so work began to speed up.

The steam engine worked a revolution in the mode of production. The discovery and use of electricity brought about the industrial revolution. A multitude of machines – mechanical, steam and electrical – began to do man's most difficult and complex work. But man's brain still had to control the machines doing the work. He had to start them, guide them and stop them. He had to judge their work and correct errors. His eyes, ears and sense of touch had to do the observing, and his brain interpreted their information. Then people invented machines and electronic computers which freed the worker not only of the performance of all production operations but even of control.

The machine made a great contribution to the spread of information and the advance of learning. The machine system made it possible to include science in production on a large scale. But let us not forget that it was a long and a hard way. It took the steam engine more than a century to develop its tremendous capacity to the full. The industrial revolution, brought about by the discovery and use of electricity, took some 50 – 60 years to run its course.

The second half of the 20th century begins an entirely new era – the era of the scientific and technological revolution. It is due to complex mechanization and full automation.

The discovery of the chain reaction of nuclear fission and the reaction of thermonuclear fusion promises mankind a practically unlimited source of energy. Now scientists began to study and use outer space for Man's benefit.

All this is possible thanks to a wide introduction of scientific discoveries in production.

We live in the epoch when science becomes direct productive force of society. All-round automation determines the social consequences of the scientific-technological progress. Automation will take over man's manual work and electronic computers will relieve him of much of his mental work, leaving him time for creativity. It obliterates the distinctions between physical and mental labour.

Vocabulary notes

  1. beyond recognition – до невпізнання;

  2. spread of information (of knowledge, of science) – поширення інформації (знань,науки);

  3. nuclear fission – поділ ядра; розщеплення (атомного ядра);

  4. thermonuclear fusion – термоядерна реакція.

Завдання 2. Надайте відповіді на запитання до тексту.

  1. Who is the creator of the material and spiritual treasures of mankind?

  2. What sources of energy did man discover and begin to use in his life?

  3. The discovery of electricity brought about the industrial revolution, didn’t it?

  4. Did the machine make a great contribution to the spread of information?

  5. What made man’s work easier and gave him time for creative work?

  6. What did the scientists discover in the second half of the 20th century?

  7. Did man use first energy of fire or atom?

  8. Will outer space be used for man’s benefit?

Завдання 3. Перекладіть наведені слова та словосполучення англійською мовою.

  1. До невпізнання _____.

  2. Заселяти _____ .

  3. Зрошувати пустелі _____ .

  4. Енергетичні ресурси _____ .

  5. Велика кількість _____ .

  6. Винаходити _____.

  7. Розвиток освіти _____ .

  8. Паровий двигун _____ .

  9. Ланцюгова реакція _____ .

  10. Соціальні наслідки _____ .

Завдання 4. Визначте які з поданих тверджень правдиві «Так» + «Ні»-

  1. First man learned to use the energy of thermonuclear fusion.

  2. Man inhabited vast expanses of wilderness, constructed roads and irrigated deserts.

  3. The machine plays a great role in the spread of information and the advance of learning.

  4. Man managed to change the Universe.

  5. The industrial revolution began after man had learned to use the energy of fire.

  6. Electronic computers will relieve man of much of his mental work.

  7. The scientists began to study and use outer space for Man’s benefit.

Завдання 5. Визначте пропущені слова.

Radar, battery, generator, appliances, dynamo, transformer

  1. ….. is a machine that generates electricity, steam, gas, etc.

  2. A device giving information about position, movement, etc. is named …..

  3. A machine for changing water and steam power into electrical energy is known as….

  4. Food mixers, toasters, modern dish-washer and a number of the most recent home devices are household…..

  5. An apparatus to increase or decrease the voltage of an electric power supply ….. was invented at the end of the 19th century.

  6. It is known that a portable cell for supplying electricity is called …..

Завдання 6. Підберіть синоніми.

  1. Also

a. quickly

  1. Engine

b. requirement

  1. Complex

c. select

  1. Rapidly

d. motor

  1. Perform

e. as well

  1. Finish

f. opportunity

  1. Demand

g. adjust

  1. Choose

h. sophisticated

  1. Possibility

i. complete

  1. Regulate

j. carry out

Завдання 7. Виберіть правильний варіант закінчення поданих речень.

  1. Man is also the creator of

a. the discovery of fire.

  1. A multitude of machines began

b. in production on a large scale.

  1. All-round automation determines

c. to do man’s most difficult and complex work.

  1. The machine system made it possible to include science

d. the sun, wind, geothermal energy and others

  1. Albert Einstein compared the discovery of atomic energy with

e. the wonderful works of art, literature and science.

  1. Our scientists are pioneers in

f. the social consequences of the scientific-technological revolution.

  1. It is so important to use such renewable sources of energy as

g. research on the use of atomic energy for peaceful purposes.

Завдання 8. Оберіть правильне тлумачення до кожного слова.

  1. Advance

  1. to supply(land) with water by artificial means

  1. Labour

  1. the effect, result or outcome of something occurring earlier

  1. Steam

  1. a period of time marked by special events

  1. Irrigate

  1. hard mental or physical work

  1. Manual

  1. a great number of

  1. Consequence

  1. the action of chemical agents upon each other

  1. Era

  1. a forward movement; a development showing progress

  1. Multitude

  1. operated by hand rather than mechanically

  1. Reaction

  1. the mist that rises from boiling water

Завдання 9. Підставте пропущені прийменники.

Over, from, to, by, of, at, in, between

  1. Although nuclear power stations are large, they can be built far….. places where people live.

  2. We must try to develop alternative sources….. energy.

  3. The machine system includes science….. production on a large scale.

  4. Automation will take….. man’s manual work.

  5. The machine made a great contribution….. the spread of information.

  6. The distinctions….. physical and mental labour will be obliterated.

  7. One of the problems scientists are working….. is to transmit energy to space stations….. using lasers.

UNIT 7

Завдання 1. Прочитайте та перекладіть текст.

ENERGY

What is energy? What are its forms and sources? How is mankind`s ever growing need for energy to be satisfied? The capacity for doing work is called energy. A body possesses energy when due to its position or condition it is capable of doing work, and the work it can do is a measure of its energy.

As we know, energy is of two types: potential or kinetic. Potential energy is the energy that has been stored by a body within it. A body possesses potential energy thanks to its position or condition. All fuels (coal, oil, gas, etc.) contain chemical potential energy because they produce the heat that will bring to motion modern engines and do physical work of great importance for our modern industrial world.

Water in a dam is a good example of potential (stored up) energy as well. It possesses this energy because of its higher position. When water is falling with great speed it turns huge turbine wheels and supplies them with kinetic energy. The motion of the turbine can now produce electric energy which will be to distant homes and factories. Thus, kinetic energy is the energy that a body has due to motion. The potential energy of the weight in its highest position is the same as its kinetic energy after it has fallen under the action of gravity to its lowest position.

There are different sources and forms of energy, such as mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc. We think of heat and electricity as forms of energy since they can do work, cause motion, move trains and ships, turn water into steam. Another form of energy is sound. It is produced by molecules of air in motion. We may say that sound is a kinetic form of energy due to the motion of molecules.

A very important feature of energy is that it can be converted or transformed form to another. The devices for converting energy from one form to another are called engines. A heat engine, for instance, transforms heat energy into mechanical energy of rotation by the combustion of coal, oil, gas or any other fuel. We may observe a number of such transformations. In the steam engine, for instance, chemical energy, stored in a fuel, is transformed into heat which is another form of energy. This produces steam which in its turn is changed into mechanical energy and drives the engine.

Now mechanical energy can be transformed into electrical by means of dynamo. The latter can be reconverted into mechanical energy in the motor. A turbine of water engine can transform the kinetic energy of falling water into mechanical rotational energy. The solar devices which have been built in many countries convert the sun`s energy into other forms of energy that man consumes with profit. All the above said is an illustration of the law of conservation of energy. According to this law energy may be transformed from one form to another, but may not be destroyed or created. This means that a definite amount of energy stored in coal, or chemical energy in a battery, may be changed into any other form of energy, such as heat or electricity.

Vocabulary notes

  1. to cause concern – викликати стурбованість

  2. to bring to motion – приводити в рух

  3. thermonuclear energy – термоядерна енергія

Завдання 2.Надайте відповіді на запитання до тексту.

  1. What is energy?

  2. What examples of potential energy do you know?

  3. When can water in a dam become kinetic energy?

  4. What are the forms of energy?

  5. What is the characteristic feature of energy?

  6. How can one form of energy be changed into another one?

  7. What is the law of conservation of energy?

  8. What are the sources of energy?

Завдання 3. Визначте які з поданих тверджень правдиві: «так» + ,«ні» - .

  1. Potential energy is the energy that a body has due to motion.

  2. The motion of the turbine can produce electric energy.

  3. A good example of kinetic energy is water in a dam.

  4. Another form of kinetic energy is sound.

  5. Energy may be transformed from one form to another.

  6. A heat engine transforms heat energy into chemical energy.

  7. Energy may not be destroyed or created.

Завдання 4. Перекладіть наведені слова та словосполучення:

  1. накопичувати −

  2. прилади для перетворювання енергії −

  3. обертання −

  4. хімічна енергія −

  5. паровий двигун −

  6. сила тяжіння −

  7. генератор −

  8. закон збереження енергії −

  9. знищувати, руйнувати −

  10. джерела енергії −

Завдання 5. Складіть речення з запропонованих словосполучень:

  1. to possess energy −

  2. to fall with great speed −

  3. to have due to motion −

  4. forms of energy −

  5. to observe transformations −

  6. to transform heat energy into mechanical energy −

  7. position or condition −

Завдання 6. Підберіть синоніми:

  1. produce

  1. change

  1. modern

  1. whole

  1. consume

  1. ruin

  1. total

  1. manufacture

  1. destroy

  1. labour

  1. convert

  1. use up

  1. work

  1. velocity

  1. speed

  1. contemporary

Завдання 7. Виберіть правильний варіант закінчення поданих речень

1. Atomic energy must be used for

a) to motion of molecules

2. The scientists are looking for

b) the biggest consumers of power, mineral raw materials and machines.

3. The sound possesses kinetic energy due

c) ways to use solar energy

4. The sun has started to be used also

d) consisting of two or more atoms

5. The chemical and petrochemical industry are

e) to heat dwellings

6. A molecule is a compound

f) peaceful purposes

Завдання 8. Оберіть правильне тлумачення до кожного слова:

  1. steam

a) the force by which objects tend to fall forward

the center of the earth;

  1. train

b) a machine for converting heat energy into force and motion

  1. fuel

c) an electric generator;

  1. condition

d) matter that can be burned to create heat or power;

  1. gravity

e) the mist that rises from boiling water;

  1. engine

f) a connected group of railroad cars;

  1. dynamo

g) a particular way of being; particular state of existing.

Завдання 9. Вставте пропущені прийменники.

on, to, of (2), into, by, for

1. Steam is changed ____ mechanical energy and drives the engine.

2. The scientists are looking____new sources of energy.

3. In the nearest future we’ll obtain hydrogen ____ thermochemical decomposition of water.

4. Albert Einstein compared the discovery ____ atomic energy with the discovery ____ fire.

5. The lecture ____ environment protection was very interesting.

6. The sound possesses kinetic energy due ____ the motion of molecules.

UNIT 8

Завдання 1. Прочитайте та перекладіть текст.

ELECTRICITY SERVES MAN

All around us – in the factory shop, or laboratory and at home – we find an obedient force ready to serve us in some way. It is electricity.

Electricity (electric power) has become so much a part of our daily life that we seldom think of its importance. Electric motors operate washing machines, refrigerators, vacuum cleaners, electric razors and many other electric appliances. The range of household electric appliances is growing. Today an increasingly greater number of people are using TV-sets, refrigerators, washing machines, electric cookers, and kitchen units.

Electricity made possible the engineering progress of today. Electricity serves as the basis of modernizing industry, increasing equipment efficiency, automating processes and concentrating production.

Electricity not only tremendously increases man's power but it becomes an inseparable part of technology. Not long ago, electricity affected the objects of labour mainly indirectly. It was a motive force, provided favourable conditions for processing or machining.

For instance, the service life of bearings made by electroslag remelting method extends almost three times as compared with the same bearings made of conventional steel.

And think of the role of electricity for communication or automation! It is used to transmit and process information. It is the basis of the comprehensive automation of all production process – technology, management, regulation, control and evaluation. Electricity does not merely make work easier: it changes it completely. Electricity is the basis of electronics which is doing much of the routine brain work.

Little could be done in modern research laboratory without the aid of electricity. Nearly all the measuring devices used in developing nuclear power are electrically operated. Geiger counters which detect the presence of uranium ores in the earth are run with batteries. X-ray ma­chines, which depend upon electricity, are used in industry to detect flaws in metal.

Much of today's scientific research depends on the solution of difficult mathematical problems, some of which would require days and months to solve by the usual methods. Electrically operated computers now make the answer to these problems available in seconds.

Vocabulary notes

  1. obedient – слухняний

  2. amalgamate – об’єднувати

  3. electroslag – електроокалення

  4. service life of bearing – термін роботи підшипника

  5. Geiger counter – лічильник Гейгера

  6. flaw – тріщина, брак

Завдання 2. Перекладіть наведені слова та словосполучення українською мовою.

  1. household electric appliances –

  2. capacity –

  3. an inseparable part –

  4. to provide –

  5. to extend –

  6. service life of bearings –

  7. to solve –

  8. comprehensive automation –

  9. to depend upon –

  10. favourable conditions –

Завдання 3. Перекладіть наведені слова та словосполучення англійською мовою.

  1. повсякденне життя –

  2. електробритва –

  3. обладнання –

  4. впливати –

  5. обробляти інформацію –

  6. сучасна дослідна лабораторія –

  7. виявляти тріщини –

  8. звичайна сталь –

  9. вимірювальні пристрої –

  10. наявність –

Завдання 4. Доповніть наступні речення:

1. Electricity is an obedient force ready _____.

2. Geiger counters detect _____.

3. Electricity is used to transmit _____.

4. _____ are electrically operated.

5. _____ without the aid of electricity.

6. X-ray machines are used in industry _____.

7. Electric motors operate a lot of electric appliances such as _____.

Завдання 5. Підберіть антоніми.

1. difficult

a.decrease

2. presence

b.separable

3. indirectly

c.easy

4. obedient

d.directly

5. much

e.often

6. modern

f.unusual

7. inseparable

g.little

8. seldom

h.ancient

9. increase

i.absence

10. usual

j.disobedient

Завдання 6. Підставте пропущені слова.

minicomputers, daily, applications, refrigerators, ores, job, communication

  1. What industrial _____ of electricity do you know?

  2. Electricity has become a part of our _____ life.

  3. The electronic industry produces several types of _____ .

  4. A great number of people use TV- sets, vacuum cleaners, washing machines, _____ and electric cookers.

  5. Electric devices always do their _____ for us.

  6. The role of electricity for _____ and automation is great.

  7. Geiger counters detect the presence of uranium _____.

Завдання 7. Виберіть правильний варіант закінчення поданих речень

1. Electricity is the basic of electronics which

a. doubles every ten years

2. Our life has been completely transformed

b. without the aid of electricity.

3.The consumption of electricity

c. is doing much of the routine brain work.

4. Little could be done in modern research laboratory

d. has become universal.

5. Electric power

e. with the appearance of electricity.

6. Radio uses an electrical energy

f. it does not pollute the environment.

7. One of the main advantages of electricity is that

g. we do in the modern world.

8. Computers control nearly everything

h. to transmit sounds, images, telegraph signals at different distance.

Завдання 8. Оберіть правильне тлумачення до кожного слова.

1.razor

a. a room or building for doing scientific experiments.

2.nuclear energy

b. hard physical or mental work.

3.X-ray

c. a metal-bearing mineral or rock that can be mined.

4.laboratory

d. help or support; assistance.

5.aid

e. energy released by reactions within atomic nuclei.

6.labour

f. a sharp-edged instrument used for shaving hair from skin.

7.ore

g. radiation capable of passing through solids.

Завдання 9. Прочитайте та перекладіть текст не користуючись словником.

Before Faradays inventions in the field of electricity and magnetism the only source of electricity that was used was the galvanic battery. It made possible some practical applications: the electric light and electric telegraph. The practical use of electricity on a large scale became possible after developing electromagnetic machines, generators and transformers. Is considered that the development of the induction motor has become the most important technical achievement. At first, the induction motor had a constant and unchangeable speed. Some years later a motor with two speed was designed. Since its invention the induction motor has been considerably improved and its power increased. But the principle of operation still remains the same.

Додаткові тексти для реферування

Industries in great britain

Great Britain is a powerful industrial country. It has highly developed heavy industry and shipbuilding. It builds ships and manufactures machinery, chemicals and electronics.

Great Britain accumulated great, wealth from the plunder of its colonies and dependencies. Having large deposits of coal and iron ore and using mechanical improvements and inventions, Great Britain outstripped all the other European countries at the beginning of the 19th century. Great Britain was the first to use power driven machinery, the first to have large factories and plants. It is a great producer of coal and steel now too.

The industries are concentrated mainly in the central part of the country. Such industrial cities as Birmingham, Liverpool, Sheffield, Manchester, Glasgow, Leeds are known all over the world. Birmingham is the largest manufacturing centre in this district and the second largest city in Great Britain. It is famous for its high-quality steel, metalware and machinery, automobile, aircraft and electro-technical equipment. Railway cars, motor cars, scientific instruments, heavy armaments, weaving looms are also produced in Great Britain.

One of the leading industries is the textile industry. The main centres of the textile industry are Liverpool and Manchester. Besides Liverpool is a large seaport. Imports passing through Liverpool consist of cotton, wool, non-ferrous metals and oil; exports consist of fabrics, yarn, textile machinery, electrical equipment and chemicals. Great Britain exports also motor-cars, aircraft and other machines, as well as electro-technical apparatus.

Stafford and Warwick abound in collieries, iron-foundries and potteries. The manufacture of china and pottery is mainly concentrated in Staffordshire where cups and saucers, plates and dishes, and other articles are made of clay or other earthy materials.

Paper is manufactured on a considerable scale in Ireland. The capital of England, London, is also a city with highly developed engineering industries.

Great Britain is largely dependent on foreign trade. At the beginning of the 20th century competition with other countries became greater, and Great Britain lost its economic domination.

STANDARDIZATION AN IMPORTANT STATE TASK

Acceleration of scientific and technical progress is closely linked with raising the technical level and quality of the machines produced (tractors, cars, machine-tools, TV-sets, refrigerators, etc.). Their production requires numerous units, components, reliability and durability of the final product.

With the demand of constant improvement of the technical level and quality of production, standards have become one of the most important state tasks. Improvement of standards has assumed a special importance. Therefore, parameters must be determined that would dictate the need for the whole of industry to produce only high-quality commodities. It is obviously necessary to single out five or six leading standards for the principal machines and mechanisms, for the final product, which, reaching the highest technical level, would enable us at the same time to raise the quality of other products too.

Now, what standards are the leading ones? In the first place, those that reflect the output of a certain type of mechanisms. Second, material consumption. The third group of standards points to the limits of energy consumption. The fourth group has to do with reliability. Finally, the fifth group of standards is oriented, on the whole, towards attaining the specified economic efficiency of the product.

In connection with standards it should be stressed that the machines must be designed according to the standards which will be characteristic of the future, not only the present, development of the given industry.

The chief task of our industry is to ensure production of machines, equipment, tools and materials conforming to the highest world standards, and substantially boost labour productivity in all branches of the national economy. To solve this task, it is necessary to work out fundamentally new kinds of mechanisms and technology, to retool production continually and on a broad scale, to implement its all-round mechanization and automation, to raise the level and effectiveness of research and standards.

In cooperation with nature

The activities of man today match the forces of nature. V. I. Vernadsky wrote: "Mankind taken as a whole is becoming a powerful geological force. And the question arising before it, before its intellect and labour, is one of rebuilding the biosphere in the interest of humanity as a freely-thinking race".

Volodymyr Ivanovych Vernadsky (1863-1945), academician, an outstanding Ukrainian scientist, naturalist was the founder of geochemistry, biochemistry and radiogeology. It was largely due to his ideas that the concept of man's absolute domination of nature gave way to that of relations between equal partners. It was still in the 1950s that teachers in natural science lectured on the conquering of nature. Acad. Vernadsky taught that nature is not to be conquered, but rather cherished and cooperated with.

V. I. Vernadsky was born in St. Petersburg in the family of Prof. I. V. Vernadsky who was a relative of the well-known writer V. G. Korolenko. In 1885 he graduated from St. Petersburg University. In the years 1898-1911 he was professor of mineralogy and crystallography at Moscow University. In this period he studied the deposits of iron ores in Kryvyi Rih and later (in 1915) — the natural productive resources of Russia and Ukraine.

After 1917 V. I. Vernadsky became one of the most active organizers of science. With a group of scientists he organized the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences which was established in 1919. He became its first President. The Academy included sections of historical and philological, physical and mathematical, social and economic sciences. He was one of the main founders of the State Public Library in Kiev.

On Vernadsky's initiative and with his most active participation important scientific institutions were organized: the State Radium Institute (1922), the Commission on the History of Knowledge (1926), the Section of Living Matter (1927) later transformed into the Biogeochemical Laboratory, and others. Acad. Vernadsky enriched our science with profound ideas in modern mineralogy, geology, hydrogeology, etc. His works laid the basis for the theory of the feasibility of man's transforming the biosphere into a "noosphere", a sphere of reason (from Greek "noos" — "reason") — a science dealing v with the interaction between nature and man. The noosphere involves a balanced relationship between man and the environment, the absence of pollution, the use of natural resources in ways harmless to nature, and the scientific management of ecosystems. Vernadsky stressed that the development of the noosphere is the common and only intelligent way for the Earth dwellers to face their future.

The talented scientist gave much energy and attention to training scientists. He was Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences since 1909 and the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine since 1919. He was elected an Honorary Member of the Czechoslovak and Paris Academies of Sciences, many home and foreign scientific societies. The scientist's merits were highly appreciated by his descendants. The year 1972 saw the establishment of the V. I. Vernadsky Prize of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, a boulevard in Kiev was named after him in 1973 where a monument to the great scientist was erected in 1981. Now the Central Scientific Library in Kiev bears the name of V. I. Vernadsky.

COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Computer graphics are known to be pictures and drawings produced by computers. A graphics program interprets the input provided by the user and transports it into images that can be displayed on the screen, printed on paper or transferred to microfilm. In the process the computer uses hundreds of mathematical formulas to convert the bits of data into precise shapes and colours. Graphics can be developed for a variety of uses including illustrations, architectural designs and detailed engineering drawings.

Mechanical engineering uses sophisticated programs for applications in computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). In the car industry CAD software is used to develop, model and test car designs before the actual parts are made. This can save a lot of time and money.

Basically, computer graphics help users to understand complex information quickly by presenting it in more understandable and clearer visual forms. Electric engineers use computer graphics for designing circuits and in business it is possible to present information as graphics and diagrams. These are certain to be much more effective ways of communicating than lists of figures or long explanations.

Today, three-dimensional graphics along with colour and computer animation are supposed to be essential for graphic design, computer-aided engineering (CAE) and academic research. Computer animation is the process of creating objects and pictures which move across the screen; it is used by scientists and engineers to analyze problems. With appropriate software they can study the structure of objects and how it is affected by particular changes.

A graphic package is the software that enables the user to draw and manipulate objects on a computer. Each graphic package has its own facilities, as well as a wide range of basic drawing and painting tools. The collection of tools in a package is known as a palette. The basic geometric shapes, such as lines between two points, arcs, circles, polygons, ellipses and even text, making graphical objects are called «primitives». You can choose both the primitive you want and where it should go on the screen. Moreover, you can specify the «attributes» of each primitive, e.g., its colour, line type and so on. The various tools in a palette usually appear together as pop-up icons in a menu. To use one you can activate it by clicking on it.

After specifying the primitives and their attributes you must transform them. Transformation means moving or manipulating the object by translating, rotating and scaling the object.

Translation is moving an object along an axis to somewhere else in the viewing area. Rotation is turning the object larger or smaller in any of the horizontal, vertical or depth direction (corresponding to the x, y and z axis). The term «rendering» describes the techniques used to make your object look real. Rendering includes hidden surface removal, light sources and reflections.

HARNESSING (ОБУЗДАНИЕ ) THE SPEED OF LIGHT

When American engineer Alan Huang revealed his plans to build an optical computer, most scientists considered this idea as hopeless. It was impractical, if not possible, they said, to create a general-purpose computer that could use pulses of light rather than electrical signals to process data. During one of the scientist's lectures on the subject, a third of the audience walked out. At another one, some of the scientists laughed, calling the researcher a dreamer.

That was several years ago. Now the scientist demonstrated his experimental computing machine based on optics. It took him five years to develop it. TV. device — a collection of lasers, lenses and prisms — can serve as the basis for future optical computers 100 to 1,000 times as powerful as today's most advanced supercomputers. The potential applications are remarkable: robots that can see, computers that can design aircraft, processors that can convert spoken words into written text and vice versa. Such practical optical computers are still years away — some would say light-years.

Yet many scientists are predicting that the device will have an impact similar to that of the integrated circuit which made small personal computers possible.

Photons, the basic unit of light beams, can in theory be much better than electrons for moving signals through a computer. First of all, photons can travel about the times as fast as electrons. And while electrons react with one another, Harris of photons, which have no mass or charge, can cross through one another without interference. Thus, photons can move in free space. This could open the door to radically new and different computer designs, including so-called parallel processors that could work on more than one problem at a time instead of one after another, as today's new generation computers do.

THE INTERNET

The Internet is a magnificent global network with millions and millions of computers and people connected to one another where each day people worldwide exchange an immeasurable amount of information, electronic mail, news, resources and, more important, ideas.

It has grown at a surprising rate. Almost everyone has heard about it and an increasing number of people use it regularly. The current estimate is that over 70 million people are connected, in some way, to the Internet — whether they know it or not.

With a few touches at a keyboard a person can get access to materials in almost everywhere. One can have access to full-text newspapers, magazines, journals, reference works, and even books. The Web is one of the best resources for up-to-date information. It is a hypertext-based system by which you can navigate through the Internet. Hypertext is the text that contains links to other documents. A special program Known as «browser» can help you find news, pictures, virtual museums, electronic magazines, etc. and print Web pages. You can also click on keywords or buttons that take you to other pages or other Web sites. This is possible because browsers understand hypertext markup language or code, a set of commands to indicate how a Web page is formatted and displayed.

Internet Video conferencing programs enable users to talk to and see each other, exchange textual and graphical information, and collaborate.

Internet TV sets allow you to surf the Web and have e-mail while you are watching TV, or vice versa. Imagine watching a film on TV and simultaneously accessing a Web site where you get information on the actors of the film. The next generation of Internet-enabled televisions will incorporate a smart-card for home shopping, banking and other interactive services. Internet -enabled TV means a TV set used as an Internet device.

The Internet is a good example of a wide area network (WAN). For long-distance or worldwide communications, computers are usually connected into a wide area network to form a single integrated network. Networks can be linked together by telephone lines or fibre-optic cables. Modern telecommunication systems use fibre-optic cables because the/offer considerable advantages. The cables require little physical space, they are safe as they don't carry electricity, and they avoid electromagnetic interference.

Networks on different continents can also be connected via satellites. Computers are connected by means of a modem to ordinary telephone lines or fibre-optic cables, which are linked to a dish aerial. Communication satellites receive and send signals on a transcontinental scale.

LANGUAGE IN THE LIFE OF MAN AND HUMAN SOCIETY

Human language is the most astonishing creation of man. It helps us to think, to express our thoughts and to understand each other. We make use of it in practically everything we do.

Language is a means of communication in human society. People can use other means of communication, such as red lights or flags, but these signs are interpreted into human language. So language is the normal form and the main means of communication in human society.

We cannot say anything definite about the origin of language. But we realize now that language is a product of human society and it can exist only in human society.

Man (‘’homo sapiens’’) is the only living being with the power of speech. The appearance of language on our planet is as recent as the appearance of man himself. Labor and language are distinctive and exclusive marks of human being. Without them the growth and progress of human society is unthinkable.

Human speech differs greatly from the signal-like actions of animals, even of those which use the voice. Dogs, for instance, make only two or three kinds of noise – say barking, growling and whining. In human speech different sound combinations have different meanings.

Primitive people had a few hundred words at the most. Today highly cultured nations have more than seven hundred thousand words in their dictionaries. This means that now people can communicate by words much better than they did it in the remote past. The rapid growth of the vocabulary of modern language is due to the development of science and technology.

But spoken languages were easy to forget; so people invented writing to record them. Writing is a way of recording language by means of visible marks. The first form of writing was picture writing. Symbols representing the sounds of a language appeared much later. The art of writing made possible to fix thoughts and store knowledge, and to pass them on from one generation to another.

Mankind speaks many languages. A group of people who use the same system of speech signals is a speech community. Speech-communities differ greatly in size. An American Indian tribe of only a few hundred persons speaks languages of its own. On the other hand, there are some speech communities that are very large.

English has several hundred million native speakers. For them English is their mother tongue. Millions of people with some other native language learn English for business, professional or political purposes. For them English is not their mother tongue but a foreign language. Ukrainian, Russian, French, German, Chinese and some other languages also have vast numbers of speakers.

There are people who know three, four, five or six languages. They are polyglots. They study languages because knowledge of languages is their specialty or hobby. For modern engineer and research worker it is absolutely necessary to have practical command of foreign languages. A scientist who can read the literature of his field in several languages has a much better grasp of the subject.

Learning foreign languages enriches the native language, makes it clearer, more flexible and expressive.

ECONOMIC-TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT AND ECOLOGY PROBLEM

For millennia man had to struggle against nature in order to survive and develop. For many thousands of years man remained weak while nature was omnipotent.

However, as economy developed, the scientific and technological revolution increased, the correlation of forces between man and nature changed. Man gradually grew so strong that he dared to declare himself the ‘’king of nature’’ and contemplated conquering and remolding nature to his liking. In his conquer of nature man became so great that his economic achievements began to have an increasingly negative effect on nature, on the biosphere.

Roads and factory construction and industrial development take away to seven million hectares of land every year. Forest disappears at a rate of some 20 hectares a minute. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Resources, 76 animal species and several hundred plant species of the Earth became extinct in the last 60 years alone.

Today, animal and plants perish not so much due to hunting, fishing or open-cast mining, as due to the production of chemical and other industrial pollutions, poisoning the biosphere.

Each year the world economy ejects into the atmosphere over 200 million of carbon monoxide, more than 50 million tons of diverse hydrocarbons, over 120 million tons of ash and nearly 150 million tons of sulphur dioxide. They fall back upon the Earth in the form of ‘’acid rain’’. Expansion of man’s activities in outer space and mastering nuclear energy make the relationship between man and nature still more complicated.

In the view of this, nature and environment protection is one of the major ecological problems. Today, it is clear that economic, social, technological and biological processes are closely interrelated. We must consider modern production as a complicated ecological-economical system. Only a strictly scientific approach to the industrial-technological development can solve ecological problems.

Nature and environment protection is one of the major functions of the state. Today, more and more people in various countries begin to understand that countries both far and near one another are ecologically interdependent. Therefore all nations must cooperate in solving global problems of ecology.

II Семестр

UNIT 9

Завдання 1. Прочитайте та перекладiть текст.

HYDROGEN AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY

Many scientists call hydrogen the fuel of the future. It is the lightest of all gases arid contains two times as many thermal calories as the same amount of gasoline. It is an excellent, ecologically clean fuel. But unlike the conventional fuels-firewood, coal, oil and natural gas it is practically non-existent in its pure forms on Earth. Scientists have developed a highly-effective technological method of obtaining hydrogen from gas. Before gas reaches the burners in the boilers of power stations, valuable components such as acetylene, carbon black, graphit and hydrogen are extracted from it.

Hydrogen can also be obtained from water. For this water has to be split.

Hydrogen can very effectively he used as a fuel by power stations. It is widely used in the petrochemical and metallurgical industries. Extensive tests have been made with motor vehicles using hydrogen as fuel. The engines worked perfectly, more efficiently than on petrol, and they did not heat up as much. Drivers in the Arctic were very enthusiastic, because liquid hydrogen is not affected by harsh frost, and so engines start easily. Hydrogen also seems very promising as a fuel in aviation. All the engines furnaces, heating systems, as well as a mass of other devices, now operating on oil, oil products, natural gas or coal can be adapted to hydrogen fuel.

Hydrogen as a source of energy is becoming increasingly important. It offers advantages not only in terms of ecological cleanliness and high-heating power, but also in terms of ease of transportation. Even if hydrogen were the only component extracted from natural gas, it would still be economically worthwhile to process gas. The advantages are twofold economic and environmental.

Experts say that in the 21st century hydrogen will be obtained by thermochemical decomposition of water.

At present, here there are such problems as how to obtain cheap, commercially profitable hydrogen from water, or how to store hydrogen in a frozen, i. e. liquid state. But present-day technology, and even more so, the technology of the future, are capable of coping with these problems.

Vocabulary notes

  1. burner – форсунка

  2. to adapt – пристосовуватися

  3. two-fold – подвійний

  4. to cope with – справлятися (з чим-небудь)

Завдання 2.Надайте відповіді на запитання до тексту.

  1. Why do the scientists call hydrogen the fuel of the future?

  2. What technological method have the scientists developed?

  3. What valuable components are extracted from gas?

  4. Is hydrogen used as a fuel in aviation?

  5. What advantages can hydrogen offer?

  6. How will hydrogen be obtained?

  7. Is it economically worthwhile to process hydrogen?

  8. Will it be possible to obtain cheap, commercially profitable hydrogen from water?

Завдання 3.Перекладіть наведені слова та словосполучення українською мовою.

  1. 1.Firewood -

  2. Valuable components –

  3. Carbon black –

  4. To obtain –

  5. Petrochemical industry –

  6. Vehicle –

  7. Harsh frost –

  8. Promising –

  9. High-heating power –

  10. Decomposition -

Завдання 4. Перекладіть наведені слова та словосполучення англійською мовою.

  1. на відміну від –

  2. виділяти -

  3. вугілля -

  4. вартий,корисний -

  5. рідкий стан -

  6. сучасна технологія -

  7. обширні випробування -

  8. двигун -

  9. досягати -

  10. справлятись з чим-небудь -

Завдання 5.Складіть речення з запропонованих слів.

  1. 1.from, be obtained, water, can, also, hydrogen.

  2. liquid, by, harsh, hydrogen, isn’t affected, frost.

  3. in, aviation, hydrogen, is used, a fuel, as.

  4. it, non-existent, on Earth, is, practically, in, forms, its pure.

  5. scientists, method, technological, of, hydrogen, gas, a highly-effective, have developed, from, obtaining.

Завдання 6.Визначте які з поданих тверджень правдиві: «Так» + «Ні» -

  1. 1.Gasoline contains two times as many thermal calories as the same amount of hydrogen.

  2. The engines heated up because they worked on hydrogen.

  3. Liquid hydrogen is not affected by harsh frost.

  4. A lot of devices, now operating on oil products and natural gas can be adapted to hydrogen fuel.

  5. After gas reaches the burners in the boilers all valuable components are extracted from hydrogen.

  6. To obtain hydrogen from water is possible. For this water has to be split.

  7. Science isn’t capable of coping with such problems as to obtain cheap hydrogen from water.

Завдання 7. Виберіть правильний варіант закінчення поданих речень

  1. Hydrogen is practically non-existent

  1. can be explained by the structure of the atom.

  1. Reliability of every vehicle should be paid great attention to

  1. obtaining hydrogen from gas.

  1. Scientists have developed a highly-effective method of

  1. they did not heat up as much.

  1. The climate in this part of the world

  1. in the pure forms on Earth

  1. The chemical properties of different elements

  1. during the production process.

  1. The engines on hydrogen worked more efficiently and

  1. is the most suitable for people to live in

Завдання 8.Оберіть правильне тлумачення до кожного словa.

1.thermostat

a. turned into ice

2. light

b. container in which water is heated to make steam

3. frozen

c. a structure in which heat is generated such as for heating houses, melting metal

4. calorie

d. a device that measures and also controls temperature.

5. mass

e. little weight; not heavy.

6. boiler

f. a unit of the amount of heat or energy;

7.furnace

g. a large number of; a great deal of.

UNIT 10

Завдання 1. Прочитайте та перекладіть текст.

SOURCES OF POWER ENGINEERING TODAY

Power in its perfect form – electric power – determines the pace of the technological advance of mankind.

The numerous machines, mechanisms and automatic devices functioning in industry, agriculture, transport and everyday life depend upon power production. In the twentieth century, mankind’s progress depends not only on electricity output, but also on the efficiency of application of electricity all spheres of the national economy.

The extensive consumption of electricity and its key role in developing the productive forces is accounted for by its high efficiency and huge advantages over other types of energy. It is the cleanest, most universal and efficient. Electricity can be transmitted over long distances. It is easily distributed among numerous consumers, or on the contrary, can be concentrated into gigantic capacities. Electricity has a revolutionizing affect on machinery and technology in all spheres of economy. This accounts for the priority given to the accelerated development of electricity all over the world.

For quite a long time man has been using wind, water and other conventional sources for producing electric power.

Beginning with the taming of the fire man has been continually looking for new sources of energy. First, there was firewood; then came coal. In the 20th century oil and natural gas began to be used on a large scale. Now man has discovered a source of heat and light millions of times more effective: one gram of nuclear fuel is equivalent to several tons of coal or oil. World reserves of nuclear fuel (including lean ores) exceed manifold the reserves of mineral fuels.

Therefore we often say that our time is the beginning of the age of atomic power. Today the application of atomic power to generate electricity is becoming increasingly broader. It is the greatest potential capable of meeting mankind’s growing requirements in electricity. Natural fuels like coal, gas, oil are being drained rapidly. Nuclear and later, thermonuclear energy will be decisive in energy supply.

That’s why the problem of using atomic power for production of electricity is of great interest, and scientists in different countries give much attention to it.

The world’s first experimental atomic power station was put into operation in 1954. Its capacity was nothing extraordinary (five thousand kilowatts), but it started a new stage in the peaceful use of atomic power.

With time going on, specialists’ experience is growing and reactors are becoming more specialized, bigger and more efficient. The atomic power plants and nuclear reactors of various types, which have been built and are being built, may differ considerably from one another.

Power generated by atomic stations may be cheaper than that generated by stations burning oil or coal from the Donbas, if only we pay attention to the problem of reliability and safety as regards people and environment. Otherwise, as the Chornobyl catastrophe shows, the nuclear energy may be too expensive.

Atomic power stations are ecologically cleaner than the traditional fuel-burning stations, if technical and technological requirements are strictly observed.

The successful development of atomic power engineering is a key factor in further raising power production.

The prospects of atomic power generation become virtually unlimited with the creation of thermonuclear power stations, fast-breeder reactors and direct transformation of atomic power into electricity.

However, after the Chornobyl catastrophe it became necessary to reconsider and reduce the programmes of the development of atomic power engineering in Ukraine.

Vocabulary notes

  1. is accounted for – пояснюється

  2. fast-breeder reactor – ядерний реактор-розмножувач

Завдання 2. Надайте відповіді на запитання до тексту.

  1. Does our everyday life depend upon power production?

  2. Why has the use of electricity advantages over other types of energy?

  3. What sources of power has a man discovered lately?

  4. What types of energy will be decisive in energy supply?

  5. When was a new stage in the peaceful use of atomic power started?

  6. Are atomic power stations reliable and safe?

  7. What happened in Chornobyl in 1986?

  8. What are the prospects of atomic power generation?

Завдання 3. Перекладіть наведені слова та словосполучення англійською мовою.

  1. Споживання електроенергії

  2. Великі переваги

  3. Ядерне паливо

  4. Перевищувати

  5. Надійність та безпека

  6. Потужність

  7. Вводити в дію

  8. Досвід

  9. Реактор на швидких нейтронах

  10. Технологічні вимоги

Завдання 4. Утворіть словосполучення з наданих слів

  1. productive

a. requirements

  1. experimental

b. capacities

  1. mineral

c. consumers

  1. technological

d. stations

  1. fuel-burning

e. resources

  1. high

f. use of atomic power

  1. gigantic

g. efficiency

  1. peaceful

h. forces

  1. numerous

i. reactors

  1. nuclear

j. atomic power station

Завдання 5. Знайдіть пари слів, що є синонімами.

Tiny – small; to disappear – to appear; to start – to begin; short - long; huge – very large; less – more; advantages – disadvantages; advance – progress; small – large; possible – impossible; true – untrue; major – main; cheap – expensive; limited – unlimited; to report – to announce; nowadays – at present; often – seldom; usually – commonly; different - various.

Завдання 6. Закресліть речення, які не належать до теми «Sources of Power Engineering».

  1. The Japanese companies developed the first pocket-size color television set.

  2. For a long time man has been using wind and water for producing electric power.

  3. Natural fuels like coal, gas, oil are being drained rapidly.

  4. Computers control nearly everything we do in the modern world.

  5. Nature and environment protection is one of the major functions of the state.

  6. The capacity of the first atomic power station was five thousand kilowatts.

  7. Power generated by atomic stations may be cheaper and ecologically cleaner.

  8. Modern industry requires materials capable of working in diverse conditions.

  9. Mankind’s progress depends on the efficiency of application of electricity in all spheres of the national economy.

Завдання 7. Підставте пропущені прийменники.

over, about, for (2), in, by (2), on

  1. Scientists are looking _____ new sources of energy.

  2. Electricity can be transmitted _____long distances.

  3. The problem of using atomic power _____ production of electricity is of great interest.

  4. Heat generated _____ atomic power stations is twice cheaper than that generated _____ fuel-burning stations.

  5. What do you know _____ the Chornobyl catastrophe?

  6. Nuclear and later, thermonuclear energy will be decisive _____ energy supply.

  7. Atomic power engineering _____ fast neutrons is particularly promising.

Завдання 8. Виберіть правильний варіант закінчення поданих речень.

  1. The first experimental atomic power station

a. into gigantic capacities.

  1. Natural fuels like coal, gas, oil

b. is equivalent to several tons of coal or oil.

  1. Electricity can be concentrated

c. which charges a battery.

  1. The heat energy produced by the reactor

d. started a new era in the peaceful use of atomic power.

  1. There is hydrogen

e. is used to make steam.

  1. One gram of nuclear fuel

f. are being drained rapidly.

  1. The solar panel produces electricity

g. in the ocean water and in the earth atmosphere

Завдання 9. Оберіть правильне тлумачення до кожного слова.

1. fuel

a. careful study of a subject in order to discover facts, theories, etc.

2. on the contrary

b. a rate of movement, speed.

3.age

c. to send or pass from one person or place to another.

4. environment

d. the length of time during which a being or thing has existed.

5. pace

e. matter that can be burned to create heat or power.

6. transmit

f. the external factors and forces surrounding and affecting an organism, person or population.

7. research

g. in opposition to what has been stated.

UNIT 11

Завдання 1. Прочитайте та перекладіть текст.

MAN’S ACTIVITY AND NATURE

The story of man’s civilization is the story of his cognition of nature and the application of his knowledge in his life.

Primitive man was born, lived, and died with little change in his mode of from generation to generation. Little by little man learned to make and use tools, first of stones and later of metals and other materials. Still later the development of writing and counting were put into use. The progress was slow since rapid advances were possible until man began to gather data and think through theories.

Only after man adopted the scientific method of studying his environment the development of civilization has become increasingly rapid in various fields of knowledge and technology.

Science and technique have change human life unrecognizably. Never before in history have there been such rapid changes in our way of life as at the present period. Scientists are making new discoveries overnight. Our homes, our food and clothing, our sources of power, our means of travel and communication, our health facilities, are being affected by these discoveries.

Using the discoveries of science man created thousands upon thousands of plants, factories and other industrial facilities for his “conquer” of nature.

Human “achievements” in conquering nature have become so great that man’s economic activity began to have an increasingly negative effect on the biosphere.

While “blank spots” have practically disappeared from the Earth’s geographical map, the “blank spots” marking deserts, felled forests and other areas of ecological disaster are expanding at a frightening pace. In mastering nuclear energy man has developed a power which, unless controlled by his intellect, could extinguish life and snuff out our planet’s blue glow. Nature’s vitally important capacity to purify itself of industrial and other wastes has been nearly exhausted.

The activities of man today match the forces of nature. The relationship between man and nature has become one of the major problems facing civilization today.

Many people have begun to reappraise their values and to understand that one of the central causes of the ecological crisis is a consumer’s attitude to nature. People began to realize that the scale and impact of human activity are not only significant to regions and countries, but also to the planet as a whole. We now realize that nature is not destroyed by scientific and technological progress itself, but rather by whom and how this progress is employed. The danger to nature stems not only from the growing scope of production but also from the inadequacy of the existing technologies. Thus the correlation of economic and ecological interests is extremely important if mankind wants to survive.

Environmental protection policies must be raised to the state level in all countries. The achievements of the scientific and technological revolution must be used in the solution of ecological problems. Environmental protection must be regarded as an important element of the social policy of all the countries. Capital investments for environmental protection must be increased considerably. Free-of-waste production must be developed to harmonize the relationship between man and nature. The development of wasteless and resourcesaving technologies presents an urgent economic problem to our country.

Environmental protection is a task requiring the joint efforts of government agencies and public organizations. Controlling the observance of environmental legislation is an important role of nature-protection societies.

All these rates and norms are closely interlinked and serve to fulfil the basic social task of protecting the health of the present generation and future generations as well.

Vocabulary notes

  1. cognition of nature – пізнання природи

  2. health facilities – засоби охорони здоров’я

  3. at a frightening pace – з надзвичайною швидкістю

  4. free-of-waste production – безвідходне виробництво

Завдання 2. Надайте відповіді на запитання до тексту.

1. What changed human life beyond recognition?

2. Where can we see the results of scientific discoveries?

3. Is man’s economic activity always positive?

4. What other “blank spots” have appeared on the geographical map of the Earth?

5. What does the consumer’s attitude to nature bring to?

6. Is it the scientific and technological progress that destroys nature?

7. What should be done if mankind wants to survive?

8. What can the development of wasteless and resource-saving technologies give to mankind?

9. What can you say about the nature-protection activity of the people?

Завдання 3. Перекладіть наведені слова та словосполучення українською мовою.

1. Application

2. Health facilities

3. To purify itself

4. Growing scope of production

5. Correlation

6. Relationship between man and nature

7. Resource-saving technologies

8. Means of travel

9. Capital investment

10. Ecological disaster

Завдання 4. Перекладіть наведені слова та словосполучення англійською мовою.

1. Пізнання природи

2. Спосіб життя

3. Джерело енергії

4. З надзвичайною швидкістю

5. Охорона навколишнього середовища

6. Оволодівати ядерною енергією

7. Споживацьке ставлення

8. Безвідходне виробництво

9. Небезпека, загроза

10. Масштаб виробництва

Завдання 5. Знайдіть пари синонімів з запропонованих слів.

Tremendous, epoch, realize, several, work, progress, great, field, era, understand, make it possible, different, achieve, some, advance, enable, area, various, reach, essential, job, important.

Завдання 6. Підберіть антоніми.

1. long

a. absence

2. forward

b.permanent

3. increase

c. rapid

4. heavy

d. short

5. slow

e. lightweight

6. invisible

f. complexity

7. changing

g. rearward

8. with

h. inward

9. simplicity

i. visible

10. rise

j. without

11. presence

k. decrease

12. outward

e. fall

Завдання 7. Підставте пропущені слова замість крапок.

experimental work; pollution; overnight; achievements; radioactivity; population; extinguish

1. Scientists are making new discoveries…..

2. Why is the problem of water…..becoming a global problem?

3. Many scientists are constantly carrying out…..to solve the problem of environment protection.

4. The…..of the scientific and technological revolution must be used in the solution of ecological problems.

5. Increasing growth of….., industrialization and the use of resources are slowly changing the global climate and water balance.

6. Nuclear power which, unless controlled by man’s intellect , could…..life on our planet.

7. A large population could be exposed to dangerous amount of…..in a number of ways.

Завдання 8. Виберіть правильний варіант закінчення поданих речень.

1. At present one of the most important problems for mankind

a. to have a negative effect on the biosphere.

2. For millennia man had to struggle against nature

b. the noise of powerful jet airliners taking off and landing.

3. The rivers, seas and oceans

c. is that air and water pollution is reaching very large proportions.

4. Environmental protection is a task requiring the joint efforts of

d. to protect the big cities from pollution.

5. Man’s economic activity began

e. in order to survive and develop.

6. People living near airports suffer from

f. government agencies and public organizations.

7. Some experts consider that it is practically impossible

g. are becoming seriously polluted by industry.

Завдання 9. Напишіть 10-15 слів та словосполучень, які ви запам’ятали з теми “Environment protection”

Завдання 10. Оберіть правильне тлумачення до кожного слова.

1. generation

a. the mental act of learning; understanding, perception

2. disaster

b. the part of the world where organism can live

3. cognition

c. an advanced state of human society, in which a high level of culture has been reached

4. biosphere

d. to remain alive; continue to exist

5. health

e. the entire group of individuals born and living at about the same time

6. civilization

f. an event causing great loss, hardship or suffering to many people

7. survive

g. the general condition of the body or mind

UNIT 12

Завдання 1. Прочитайте та перекладіть текст.

BASIC FACTS OF NUCLEAR PHYSICS

In recent years tremendous advances have been made in the development of various branches of physics.

The most remarkable researchers of the twentieth century have substantiated two ideas about the nature of the matter which the Greek philosophers formulated twenty centuries ago. One is the theory that the many thousand of substances which exist in the world are formed out of a small number of simpler substances or molecules. The other theory is that matter is constructed out of tiny particles or units, the so-called atoms of matter.

The modern scientist is convinced of the existence of molecules and atoms. Everything in and on the earth, the moon, the sun, and all other stars, is made of atoms. Billions of atoms together make everything that exists. Take a handful of air, and you will hold billions of atoms.

Look at your handful of atoms. You can not see a single one, no matter how hard you look, for every atom is too small to seen even with a powerful microscope.

The atoms which form the molecules are, of course, smaller than molecules, while the electrons of which the atoms are composed are yet smaller. From various experiments scientists concluded that the diameter of the average molecule is about one 125,000,000th of an inch. Since atoms compose molecule, they must be still smaller. If each atom in an orange measured one inch in diameter, the orange would be as large as the earth.

Molecules all vary in size, depending upon the number and size of the atoms which compose them. They vary from simple ones consisting of two atoms such as the hydrogen molecules, to complex ones, like those of starch, some of which contain as many as 2,500 atoms. Protein molecules are even larger than this.

Not all the atoms weigh the same amount. From the way atoms act, scientist have been able to compare their weight and list them in a table beginning with the lightest and ending with the heaviest. Such a table was created in 1869 by D. I. Mendeleyev, the Great Russian scientist.

Hydrogen, the gas used in toy balloons, is very light. Uranium, the ore used for atomic energy production, is the heaviest, and its atom is the last in the table of atoms that exist naturally. Heavier ones which follow uranium in the table have been made by man.

The practical uses of nuclear energy are based on knowledge of the structure of matter. Our knowledge of the internal structure of the atom is a twentieth century achievement. It is extremely new, so new in fact, that physicists realize that far more remains to be found out than has already been discovered. Yet that knowledge has already played an important part in the advance of chemistry and industry, and most recently in the peaceful use of atomic energy.

Vocabulary notes

  1. To be convinced of – бути переконаним

  2. To substantiate - доводити, обґрунтовувати

  3. Far more remains to be found out - значно більше залишається відкрити

  4. Contain as many as 2500 atoms - вміщати 2500 атомів

  5. From the way atoms act - по тому, як атоми поводяться

Завдання 2. Дайте відповіді на запитання.

  1. What are the advances of physics in our days?

  2. What ideas about the nature of the matter have the researchers of 20th century substantiated?

  3. What do you know about the atomic theory of matter?

  4. What do you know about the structure of the molecule?

  5. What can you say about the size of molecule?

  6. What does the size of molecule depend on?

  7. How can we determine the weight of atoms?

  8. What parts does the atom consist of?

  9. What are the great discoveries of the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century?

  10. What are the peaceful uses of atomic energy in the world?

Завдання 3. Заповніть пропуски, користуючись змістом тексту.

  1. The most remarkable researchers of the twentieth _____ have substantiated two ideas about the nature of the matter.

  2. The modern _____ is convinced of the existence of molecules and atoms.

  3. From various experiments scientist concluded that the _____ of the average molecule is about one 125000000th of an inch.

  4. Molecules all vary in size depending on the number and size of the atoms which _____ them.

  5. The practical uses of nuclear _____ are based on knowledge of the structure of matter.

Завдання 4. Доберіть відповідні англійські слова та словосполучення до наступних українських слів.

1.Розвиток -

a) energy

b)development

c) physics

d)advance

2. Галузь -

a)branch

b) technology

c)balloon

d)matter

3. Дослідження -

a)electron

b)light

c)research

d)structure

4. Речовина -

a)state

b) substance

c) science

d)element

5. Знання -

a)particle

b)application

b)knowledge

d)method

Завдання 5. Дайте вірні визначення наступним словам.

  1. Energy

a) smallest unit of an element that can take part in a chemical change;

  1. Atom

b) capacity to do things and get things done;

  1. Structure

c) way in which something is put together, organized;

  1. Compose

d) any air-like substance;

  1. Gas

e) to make up;

Завдання 6. Складіть речення з запропонованих слів.

  1. The smallest, unit, element, the atom, a chemical, according to, of, science, modern, is.

  2. Scientist, of, established, in, the 19th century, theory, atomic, of, matter, structure, the.

  3. Great, our, achievements, scientist, in, various, of, have, branches, and, science, technology.

  4. The atoms, the same, amount, weigh, not, all.

Завдання7. Доповніть речення згідно зі змістом тексту.

  1. In recent years tremendous advances have been made in ______.

  2. If each atom in an orange measured one inch in diameter, the orange would be______.

  3. Billions of atoms together make______.

  4. From the way atoms act, scientists have been able to compare their______

  5. Hydrogen, the gas in toy balloons, ______.

UNIT 13

Завдання 1. Прочитайте та перекладіть текст.

CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL INDUSTRY IN MODRN LIFE

Everybody knows that chemistry with its today’s possibilities is a young science. But its history began several thousand years ago. A great number of facts which are still useful in modern chemistry are discovered in ancient Greece, Rome and especially Egypt. But that knowledge was purely practical. They could not explain many things prepared medicines from plants but could not tell what elements they consists of.

Today, chemistry is revolutionizing the material conditions of life of contemporary society. Its impact on the development of production is accounted for by the fact that many new technological methods are based on the chemical transformation of matter, the use of catalysis, synthetic materials and other achievements of chemistry and chemical industry. Those methods as a rule promote the growth of output and improve its quality, allow a more intensive use of equipment and cut costs on material and labour.

Everybody knows that chemistry is an extremely useful thing. We are aware of the fact that none of the key industries can develop without chemistry. This applies to machine-building, rocketry, agriculture; light and building industries, medicine, national defence, etc. There are other sciences such as biochemistry, molecular biology, geochemistry and astrochemistry which have been considerably affected by the progress of chemistry.

We all realize that the successes of contemporary chemistry have been amazingly great. Take, for instance, the chemistry of polymers. Scientists who are working jointly with the chemical branches of industry have created excellent polymers as far as durability and thermal stability are concerned. In our everyday life we are using beautiful fabrics and materials which can now be made “to order” out of polymers obtained from natural gas, coal, shale, wood or oil. They are much more durable, cheaper and of considerably better quality. Polymer substances are used in making bolts, screws, bodies for motor cars and motor boats, skis, tanks, belts, springs, bearings, blood vessels and joints, and a lot of other quite improbable things. We also know that almost all detergents, fertilizers, lubricants, fuels, antifreezes, pesticides, cosmetics, solid-state devices, energy- converters (magnets, lasers) and thousands of other products are constructed wholly or in part of synthetics.

In the not too distant future, when the atom, the Sun, the heat of the Earth, and the tides become the main sources of energy, the great quantities of coal, oil, gas, shale and wood, which are extracted burned up all over the world every year, will be used to make consumer goods.

Today we are witnessing the development of a new scientific and technical branch – biochemical technology. The chemists-researchers have already succeeded in determining the place and role of each atom in a complex bioorganic compound. We are also reading quite frequently about the scientists who can retrace and organize the processes in a living organism and change hereditary properties by introducing artificially created carriers of hereditary characters. The combination of biological or micro biological processes with those of direct chemical synthesis helps obtain new substances or microorganisms. This also will provide humanity with unlimited sources of food, medicines, fodder, many types of highly valuable raw materials, etc.

We are sure that there will be many new discoveries in chemistry. They will create new opportunities in the future of mankind.

Vocabulary notes

  1. To be aware of – знати, усвідомлювати

  2. Rates of growth – темпи зростання

  3. Hereditary properties – спадкові властивості

Завдання 2. Дайте відповіді на запитання до тексту.

  1. What is the characteristic feature of the ancient chemistry?

  2. What is the role of chemistry in the life of contemporary society?

  3. Why is chemistry an extremely useful science?

  4. What is the impact of modern chemistry on production?

  5. In what branches of industry is chemistry useful?

  6. What new scientific and technical branches of chemistry have appeared?

  7. What are the tendencies of modern chemistry?

Завдання 3.Перекладіть українською та англійською мовою наступні словосполучення, користуючись текстом

А)

  1. transformation of matter;

  2. the growth of output;

  3. an extremely useful thing;

  4. national defence;

  5. bioorganic compound;

B)

        1. молода наука;

        2. досягнення хімії;

        3. вдосконалювати якість;

        4. змінити спадкові риси;

        5. необмежні джерела;

Завдання 4. Доповніть речення, користуючись змістом тексту.

  1. A great number of facts which are still useful in modern chemistry were discovered in ______.

  2. There are such sciences as biochemistry, molecular biology, geochemistry, astrochemistry which have been considerably affected by______.

  3. In the not too distant future, when the atom, the Sun, the heat of the Earth become the main sources of energy, the great quantities of coal, oil, gas and wood, which are extracted and burned every year, will be used to______.

  4. Today we are witnessing the development of a new scientific and technical branch - ______.

  5. The chemists-researchers have already succeeded in determining______.

Завдання 5.

А) Доберіть синоніми до поданих слів, користуючись змістом тексту:

enormous, significant, large, different, to behavior, to arrange, forceful;

В) Доберіть до поданих слів слова протилежні за значенням, користуючись змістом тексту:

outdated, simple, decompose, weak, external, light, many, violent.

Завдання 6. Заповніть пропуски, користуючись змістом тексту.

  1. In recent years tremendous advances have been made in the development of various ______ of physics.

  2. The most remarkable researchers of the 20th century have substantiated two ideas about ______of the matter.

  3. The modern______ is convinced of the existence of molecules and atoms.

  4. Molecules all vary in size, ______ upon the number and size of the atoms which compose them.

  5. Uranium, the ore used for ______ energy production, is the heaviest, and its atom is the last in the table of atoms that exist naturally.

  6. Our knowledge of the internal ______ of the atom is a 20th century achievement.

Завдання 7. Складіть словосполучення з запропонованих частин.

    1. atomic

a )use

    1. peaceful

b) energy

    1. Russian

c) molecule

    1. protein

d )scientist

    1. tremendous

e) philosophers

    1. Greek

f) advances

    1. Various

g) experiments

UNIT 14

Завдання 1. Прочитайте та перекладіть текст.

LASER TECHNOLOGY

The next century may well become the century of lasers. This miracle-making beam is the symbol of 20th century technology. There is no doubt that the use of lasers will be very widespread in the nearest future. Quite possibly, it will be as widely used as electronic devices are today.

What is laser? It is a device for making and concentrating light waves into a very intense beam. The letters LASER stand for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. The light made by a laser is much more intense than ordinary light. With ordinary light all the light waves are of different lengths. With lasers all the light waves are of the same length, and this increases the intensity.

The functioning of lasers is governed by the laws of quantum mechanics. The laser is a device in which energy (thermal, chemical or electric) is transformed into electromagnetic radiation energy, a laser beam with maximally low entropy.

The quality of laser energy is determined by the possibility of its high concentration both in space and in time. The laser beam is first compressed in time, i.e. transformed into a short pulse. Then it may be compressed in space focusing it to a fine point with a diameter of the order of alight wave length, thus obtaining energy density which, to date, evens that of a nuclear explosion. Laser energy can also be concentrated within a very narrow spectrum interval. This makes the laser a very fine instrument.

The world’s fist ruby laser had a dark- red beam. Other lasers were then produced, whose beam oscillated in crystals of a different composition, in semiconductors, gases, and liquids. And the beams were blue, green or invisible – infrared. What they have in common is that the beam is always space- bound and carries a highly pointed and power flux of energy.

Laser energy may be transformed practically without loss into many familiar forms of energy.

As each of new kinds of energy was mastered, mankind gained new possibilities for its development. But discovery of the laser signifies something greater than simply mastering a new kind of energy. Wide laser application in production signifies a revolution in the implements of labor – the most flexible and mobile element of the productive forces.

Vocabulary notes

  1. of the order of – порядку

  2. to master – оволодівати

  3. implements of labor – знаряддя праці

  4. to have in common – мати щось спільне

  5. flux of energy – потік енергії

  6. highly pointed – з надзвичайно гострим кінцем

Завдання2. Дайте відповіді на запитання до тексту.

  1. What is a laser?

  2. Where does the word ‘’laser’’ come from?

  3. What laws govern the functioning of laser?

  4. What is the quantity of laser energy determined by?

  5. What makes the laser a very fine instrument?

  6. Where does the laser find a wide application?

  7. What types of lasers can we speak of?

Завдання 3. Перекладіть англійською мовою наступні слова та словосполучення, користуючись змістом тексту.

Цілком може стати, немає сумніву, найближче майбутнє, електронний прилад, звичайне світло, закони квантової механіки, якість, лазерний промінь, ентропія, визначати, отримувати, вузький інтервал, людство, знаряддя виробництва, виробничі сили, коливатися, напівпровідник,рідина, відкриття.

Завдання 4. Заповніть пропуски, користуючись змістом тексту.

  1. This miracle-making ______ is the symbol of the 20th century technology.

  2. The light made by a laser is much more ______ than ordinary light.

  3. The functioning of lasers is governed by the ______ of quantum mechanics.

  4. The quality of laser energy is determined by the possibility of its high concentration both in ______ and in ______.

  5. The world’s first ______ laser had a dark-red beam.

  6. Laser energy may be transformed practically without ______ into many familiar forms of energy.

  7. But discovery of the laser signifies something greater than simply ______ a new kind of energy.

Завдання 5. Дайте вірні визначення наступним словам.

  1. beam

a) something in which all objects exist and move;

  1. mechanics

b) ray or stream of light;

  1. laser

c) a science of motion and force;

  1. law

d)a device for generating ,amplifying light waves into an intense beam;

  1. space

e) factual statement of what always happens in certain circumstances.

Завдання 6. Визначте, які речення відповідають змісту тексту, а які ні.

  1. Laser is a device for making and concentrating light waves into a very intense beam.

  2. The functioning of laser is governed by the laws of applied mechanics.

  3. The laser beam is first compressed in time, i.e. transformed into a short pulse.

  4. The world’s first ruby laser had a dark-blue beam.

  5. As each of new kinds of energy was mastered, mankind gained new possibilities for its development.

UNIT 15

Завдання 1. Прочитайте та перекладіть текст.

ELECTRONIC COMPUTER EVOLUTION

One of the most progressive and dynamic branches of science and technology is computer technology. The word computer is of Latin origin and means ‘’counting’’. A computer is a special kind of counting machine. It can do arithmetic problems at a tremendous speed. By means of electrical circuits it can find the answer to a very difficult and complicated problem with lightning speed. A computer can ‘’remember’’ information you give it and store it in its ‘’memory’’ until it is needed.

The first electronic computer appeared in 1946 on the basis of electronic vacuum tube with response number of five thousand operations per second. As early as 1960s the second generation appeared in which transistors were used to increase the number of operations to 200 thousand per second.

The appearance of integrated circuits and microprocessors gave birth to the third generation of computers capable of performing two million operations per second. It found wide application in all fields of economy solving the most complex economic problems.

The computers of the fourth generation are based on very high-capacity integrated circuits and microprocessors able to perform 100 million operations per second.

Now the fifth generation of computers is widely used in production. The PS-200 (PS stand for ‘’parallel system’’) supercomputer is able to perform 200 million operations per second and is based on super high-capacity integrated circuits. Here for the first time in the world engineering practice a new parallel system concept is used.

Any computer performs many functions: in addition to dealing with numbers the computer supervises the whole computing process, and determines the sequence in which information is to arrive at its processors. In fact, the computer takes only one-tenth of its total operating time to do the computing, the function it is designed for.

What is needed, therefore, is a computer with computing elements free from all other functions. This becomes possible if supervision is assigned to special processors acting as managers. Operating in conjunction with computing circuits these processors give instructions and run the queue of information to enter the processor from storage, etc.

The fastest computer in the USA works like an assembly line with individual processors performing individual operations. Data have to pass through the entire length of the conveyer, no matter how many processors there are to process them. Our approach differs radically. We suggest a principle whereby all processors respond to a single control command which leaves them a certain margin of freedom, with the possibility to sort out their data independently. Receiving a common ‘’command’’ they all start off doing similar operations, later switching over to successive operations until the whole problem is solved. The efficiency of this parallel system is obvious. First, similar operations can be handled at any speed as it depends on the number of processors involved. Second, a single-control system for all processors is simple and low-cost.

Vocabulary notes

  1. response number - кількість реагувань

  2. to run the queue of information – пропускати чергу інформації

  3. successive operations – послідовні операції

  4. single-control system - система однокнопкового управління

Завдання 2. Дайте відповіді на запитання до тексту.

  1. Why is computer technology the most progressive and dynamic branch of science and technology?

  2. When did the first electronic computers appear?

  3. What was the response number of the first electronic computer?

  4. When did the second generation of computer appear?

  5. What was the number of operations they could perform?

  6. What gave birth to the third generation of computers?

  7. What are the computers of the fourth generation based on?

  8. What generation of computers is widely used in production now?

  9. What types of computers do you know?

Завдання 3. Доповніть речення, користуючись змістом тексту.

  1. One of the most progressive and dynamic branches of science and technology is ______.

  2. A computer can “remember” information you give it and in its “memory” until _______.

  3. The second generation appeared in which transistors were used to increase ________.

  4. The third generation of computers found wide application in all fields of economy solving _______.

  5. The fastest computer in the USA works like an assembly line with individual processors ______.

  6. Data have to pass through the entire length of the conveyer, no matter how many processors there are _______.

  7. We suggest a principle whereby all processors respond to a single control command which leaves them a certain margin of freedom, with the possibility _____.

Завдання 4. Перекладіть українською мовою наступні слова та словосполучення, користуючись змістом тексту.

  1. Counting machine, electrical circuit, computing technology, computing element, integrated circuit, printed board, computer network, computing process, operating time, assembly line, control system, computer component, computer laboratory, successive operations.

Завдання 5. Підберіть слова, щоб утворити словосполучення.

  1. dynamic

a) problem

  1. complicated

b )branch

  1. latin

c) circuit

  1. integrated

d) origin

  1. engineering

e) computer

  1. fastest

f) practice

  1. Individual

g) length

  1. entire

j) processor

Завдання 6. Дайте вірні визначення наступним словам.

  1. branch

a) electronic device which stores information and analyses it;

  1. computer

b) closed path for an electric current;

  1. circuit

c) information prepared for and operated on a computer program;

  1. to store

d) division or subdivision of a subject, knowledge;

  1. data

e) to keep for future use;

UNIT 16

Завдання 1. Прочитайте та перекладіть текст.

ROBOTS MOVE IN

Imagine the real working conditions for a human operator by, for example, transfer of a hot-formed glass tube, removal of hot metal die castings or plastics injection. The environmental temperature is above 50 degrees Centigrade and the melting furnaces produce direct and unbearable heat radiation. This kind of job is very difficult, exhausting, monotonous and unpleasant. In the case of machining radioactive or toxic material the work becomes highly dangerous for a man’s life.

The necessity of some form of automated handling processes became obvious. So robots appeared on the scene with their high safety and reliability level. We are now surrounded by robots, big ones, little ones and medium- sized ones. They serve us in thousands of ways every day.

You can find robots practically anywhere you look. In factories there are giant robots. They pick up great amounts of raw materials and pass them to other robots which press, stamp and shape the raw material into a wide variety of things. Robot usage has been expanding for industrial spraying, hot handling, assembly, welding, etc.

According to available data, our industry receives annually thousands of robots of different types and purposes. Today, robotic systems, lines and modules are already operating at the leading plants of the motor, electrical engineering, watch-making, machine-tool industries, etc.

Robotics is just beginning to make inroads in industrial production worldwide. It is not a simple process; the experts are yet to clear up many questions. But everyone agrees even now that the robot by itself does nothing – it must be constructively designed together with the machine tools it is to operate and must be logically incorporated within the system of machines, machine-tools and other units. The problem is not to design individual robots but robotical complexes, flexible and automated production systems that are easily modifiable for the manufacture of ever new kinds of products. Single-handled, even the ‘’cleverest’’ and most skilful robot is not yet a soldier in the field. Even many robots are not effective piecemeal, unless they are united into a technological chain.

Specialized enterprises are reoriented from the production of industrial robots by piece, toward the manufacture of complete systems and robotized complex instruments with the assessment of their performance by the end result – the quality and volume of the production made with their assistance.

This task is presently being tackled by our industry and economy. Robots release workers from monotonous and very hard work, requiring no skilled labour, in hot shops, and in production with hazardous working conditions.

Vocabulary notes

  1. plastics injection - вдування пластмаси

  2. hot handling – термообробка

  3. to make inroads (in) – вторгатися в

  4. single-handed robot – одноцільовий робот

Завдання 2. Дайте відповіді на запитання до тексту.

  1. What helps man avoid difficult, exhausting, monotonous and dangerous work?

  2. Where are robots and automated complexes applied first of all?

  3. What can robots do?

  4. What do you know about robot manufacture?

  5. When is the use of robots especially effective?

  6. What is the tendency in the production of industrial robots today?

  7. What does the introduction of automation result in?

Завдання 3. Доповніть речення, користуючись змістом тексту.

  1. The environmental temperature is above 50 degrees C and the melting furnaces produce direct and ________.

  2. In the case of machining radioactive or toxic material the work becomes highly ____.

  3. The necessity of some form of automated handling processes became ____.

  4. So robots appeared on the scene with their safety and ____.

  5. Robots pick up great amounts of raw materials and pass them to other robots which ____.

  6. Today robotic systems, lines and modules are already operating at ____.

  7. The problem is not to design individual robots but____.

  8. Single-handed, even the ‘’cleverest’’ and most skilful robot is not yet____.

  9. Specialized enterprises are reoriented from the production of industrial robots by piece, toward the manufacture of ____.

  10. Robots release workers from monotonous and ____.

Завдання 4. Перекладіть англійською мовою наступні слова та словосполучення, користуючись змістом тексту:

температура навколишнього середовища, плавильна піч, вдування пластмаси, нестерпне теплове випромінювання, обробка радіоактивних або токсичних матеріалів, надзвичайно небезпечний рівень безпеки та надійності, роботи різних типів і призначень, розробка виробничої технології.

Завдання 5. А) Доберіть синоніми до поданих слів, користуючись змістом тексту.

Clear, big, output, elaboration, complicated, help, estimation, various;

В) Доберіть антоніми до поданих слів, користуючись змістом тексту.

Easy, pleasant, low, narrow, difficult, old, little, similar.

Завдання 6. Складіть речення з запропонованих частин.

  1. Robotics is just beginning to make

a) monotonous and very hard work

  1. According to available data, our industry

b) anywhere you look.

  1. Robots release workers from

c) receive annually thousands of robots.

  1. You can find robots practically

d) high safety and reliability level.

  1. So robots appeared on the scene with their

е) inroads in industrial production.

Додаткові тексти для реферування

DIGITAL COMPUTERS

There are two fundamentally different types of computers: analog and digital. The former type solves problems by using continuously changing data such as voltage. In current usage, the term ‘’computer’’ usually refers to high-speed digital computers. These computers are playing an increasing role in all branches of the economy.

Digital computers are based on manipulating discrete binary digits (1s and 0s0). They are generally more effective than analog computers for four principal reasons: they are faster; they are not so susceptible to signal interference; they can transfer huge data based more accurately; and their coded binary data are easier to store and retrieve than the analog signals.

For all their apparent complexity, digital computers are considered to be simple machines. Digital computers are able to recognize only two states in each of its millions of switches, ‘’on’’ and ‘’off’’, or high voltage or low voltage. By assigning binary numbers to these states, 1 for ‘’on’’ and 0 for ‘’off’’, and linking many switches together, a computer can represent any type of data signals that is known as digitization. The real power of a computer depends a on the speed with which it checks switches per second. The more switches a computer checks in each cycle, the more data it can recognize at one time and the faster it can operate, each switch being called a binary digit bit.

A digital computer is a complex system of four functionally different elements: 1) the central processing unit (CPU), 2) input device, 3) memory-storage devices called disk drives, 4) output devices. These physical parts and all their physical components are called hardware.

The central processing unit is the heart of a computer. In addition to performing arithmetic and logic operations on data, it controls the rest of the system. Sometimes the CPU consists of several linked microchips, each performing a separate task, but most computers require only a single microchip as the CPU.

Input devices let users enter commands, data or programmes for processing by the CPU. Information typed at the computer keyboard is translated into a series of binary numbers the CPU can manipulate. The mouse is another widely used mechanical input device. To move the cursor on the display screen, the user moves the mouse, selects operations and activates commands on the screen by pressing buttons on the top of the mouse.

The power of computers greatly depends on the characteristics of memory-storage devices. Most digital computers store data both internally, in what is called main memory, and externally, on auxiliary storage units. There exist different kinds of auxiliary storage devices, removable magnetic disks, being the most widely used.

Output devices let the user see the results of the computer‘s data processing. Being the most commonly used output device, the monitor accepts video signals from a computer and shows different kinds of information such as texts, formulas and graphics on tits screen. With the help of various printers information can be easily printed on paper in a desired number of copies.

Programmes, also called software, are detailed sequences of instructions that direct the computer hardware to perform useful operations. Due to a computer’s operating system hardware and software systems can work simultaneously. An operating system consists of a number of programmes coordinating operations, translating the data from different input and output devices, regulating data storage in memory, transferring tasks to different processors, and providing functions that help programmers to write software.

PLASTICS

Plastics are a large and varied group of materials consisting of combinations of carbon and oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and other organic and inorganic elements. While solid in its finished state, a plastic is at some stage in its manufacture, liquid and capable of being formed into various shapes. Forming is most usually done through the application, either singly or together, of that and pressure. There are over 40 different families of plastics in commercial use today, and each may have dozen of subtypes and variations.

A successful design in plastics is always a compromise among highest performance, attractive appearance, efficient production, and lowest cost. Achieving the best compromise requires satisfying the mechanical requirements of the part, utilizing the most economical resin or compound that will perform satisfactorily, and choosing a manufacturing process compatible with the part design and material choice.

Most people have now outgrown the impression that plastics are low-cost substitute materials. Those that still view plastics as cheap and unreliable have not kept up with developments in polymer technology for the past ten years.

Many plastics did indeed evolve as replacements for natural products such as rubber, ivory, silk or wool, which became unavailable or on short supply. But the new materials did not necessarily replace the older ones permanently nor make them obsolete. In many cases, they met an increased demand that could not be met by the natural product alone.

Today’s engineering resins and compounds serve in the most demanding environments. Their toughness, strength, and corrosion resistance have won many significant applications for these materials in transportation, industrial and consumer products. The engineering plastics are now challenging the domains traditionally held by metals: truly load-bearing, structural parts.

WORLD WIDE WEB

The Internet originally appeared as the US Department of Defense program called ARPANET, that is Advanced Research Projects Agency Network in the early 1970s when the United States wanted to make sure that people could communicate after a nuclear war. The US military created an electronic network to use computers for handling the transfer of large amounts of sensitive data over long distances at incredible speed. Computer-to-computer virtual connections, using satellites and fiber optics, have distinct advantages over telephone or radio communications in the event of a nuclear attack. This needed a free and independent communication network without a centre and it led to a network of computers that could send each other e-mail through cyberspace.

Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web (WWW) when he discovered a way to jump to different files on his computer using the random, or unplanned, links between them. He then wrote a simple coding system, called HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language), to create links to files on any computer connected to the network. This was possible because each file had an individual address, or URL (Uniform Resource Locator). He then used a set of transfer rules, called HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol), to link Web files together across the Internet. Berners-Lee also invented the world’s first browser. This lets you locate and view Web pages and also navigate from one link to another.

The WWW became available to everyone in 1991 and the number of Internet users grew from 600,000 to 40 million in five years. By the mid-1990s the Internet linked millions of computers throughout the world and it is sure to be the most important commercial and popular means of communication nowadays. The original uses of the Internet were electronic mail, file transfer, bulletin boards and remote computer access. Having expanded considerably the World Wide Web enables users easily to examine the Internet sites and now it is likely to have become the leading information service of the Internet. Since the mid-1990s electronic commerce has become one of the most rapidly growing retail sectors involving the use of computer telecommunication networks for maintaining business relationships and selling information, services and commodities.

THE PROBLEM OF POLLUTION

People have been changing the environment throughout history. Campfires have sent smoke into the air. Wood has been taken from forests. Animals have been raised for food and their bones left to litter the area. Recently, changes have been more drastic.

Since the Industrial Revolution, people and factories have put huge amounts of pollutants into the earth’s air and water systems. Pollution has increased to the point where some plants and animal species are endangered. Poisonous or toxic wastes have entered our food chain. Even the atmosphere is affected. Recently, concern about pollution has grown. The governments, businesses and individuals now are taking steps to control pollution.

Another consequence of industrialization and population growth is the depletion of the water supply. Industrial plants have dramatically increased the demand for water. Manufacturing processes and a growing population require ever-increasing amounts of water. Some areas of the earth suffer from a shortage of usable water.

Today, pollution affects many areas of the environment. People pollute the air and water by adding unclean substances to them. Environmental pollution refers to the ways people pollute their surroundings. For example, factories and motor vehicles add harmful gases to the air. Industries pour the waste products of the manufacturing process into lakes and rivers. Noises from construction and traffic are sometimes deafening. People ruin natural surroundings by littering. Hazardous waste products, such as poisonous chemicals and radioactive materials, are not always disposed of properly. Nearly everyone causes environmental pollution in some way.

Firms measure production expenses by adding the costs of all resources used to make the product – land, labor and capital. Expenses do not include the price of resources that have no market value, such as water and air; therefore, pollution costs usually are not part of production costs. Such accounting is an economically sound business practice. Profit depends on producing the best product for the lowest price.

STIMULATE YOUR BRAIN

Studies show that exercising your brain can help improve your concentration and memory. Some scientists also believe that it can also create a "cognitive reserve" that will allow you to stay sharp as you grow older. You can easily exercise your brain every day by following these simple tips.

1. Read often. Set time aside to read each day. However, don't always read the same type of books. For example, if you are a fan of mysteries, mix it up with a historical biography or science fiction. Subscribe to several newspapers — your local paper, the Wall Street Journal and a trade publication that interests you. Try to read the paper each day before leaving for work.

2. Do puzzles. Crossword puzzles, Sudoku and other word puzzles are terrific ways to work your brain. What's great about puzzles is that they are available on-line. In days gone by, you could only find crossword puzzles in newspapers or magazines. However, you can now choose from thousands of puzzles on the Internet.

3. Use your opposite hand. If you are right handed, try to use your left hand to do everyday tasks (and vice versa). By switching hands, you will be exercising the opposite side of the brain. Some tasks will be extremely difficult at first, but over time you can train yourself to be ambidextrous in many instances.

4. Play video and online games. Despite what you might read, not all video games will turn your brain to mush. In fact, many games are designed to improve your memory, develop logic, increase mental speed and boost creativity. Look for "brain games" such as chess, memory games, logic puzzles, word games and many others.

5. Learn a foreign language. One of the most powerful ways to exercise your mind is through learning a new language. Take a course at your local community college or language school. If that's not convenient, you can learn a foreign language online or by listening to disks. There are many other ways to exercise your brain such as practicing meditation, doing math problems, learning to play a musical instrument and expanding your vocabulary. The key is to avoid getting into a routine. By changing your day to day activities and taking on new challenges, you can improve your mental capacity and stimulate your brain.

ONLINE EXERCISES TRAIN YOUR BRAIN

Sitting at the computer all day surfing for new shoes or getting the latest celebrity gossip isn't going to do much to boost your brain power. But, playing online brain games might. A recent study proves that working memory and visual attention can be improved through the use of web-based cognitive training programs — "brain games". Read on to find out just how much brain training you need to see improvements! Your muscles don't get stronger without consistent resistance training, and the same goes for your brain. Research shows that cognitive exercises can improve your brain fitness and ward off Alzheimer's and dementia down the road. Sure, you can do the Sunday paper crossword puzzle or even challenge your wits playing word games and riddles with your kids. But if you are on the computer for much of your day, online brain training may be just the thing you need to keep your cognitive abilities sharp. And those computer brain training games aren't just for passing time when your boss isn't looking. Research conducted by Lumos Labs suggests that brain games — such as those online at Happy Neuron or used on a hand-held device, like Nintendo's Brain Age — can significantly improve your working memory and visual attention.

What exactly is working memory and visual attention? Working memory is the process of temporarily storing and manipulating information. It belies performance in other activities such as logical reasoning and reading comprehension and it bears a strong relationship with a person's general intelligence. Visual attention is the allocation of attention that determines how a person perceives his or her environment. Changes in visual attention can affect behaviors, such as driving and understanding changes in the environment.

The Lumos Labs research shows that its online training program — called Lumosity – consisting of five different cognitive exercises can improve attention, memory, processing speed and executive function. Exercises used in the study included birdwatching (a game requiring the user to identify a letter while simultaneously detecting the location of a bird graphic somewhere else on the screen), memory match (a speed match of previous data to current data), and monster garden (a maze requiring the user to rely on memory to avoid obstacles and complete a maze). Exercises in the study provided points and increasing difficulty levels. Study participants were able to use their own PC and had no guidance from researchers. They were instructed to play specified online brain games for a 20-minute session every day for five weeks. As compared to a control group (which did not play brain games), trained participants could more precisely locate rapidly presented visual stimuli and better evaluate a larger scope of visual information. Trained participants also had a significantly larger working memory span. In simple terms, the online games were effective in boosting brain power.

What does it mean for you? Researchers say that adults of any age can benefit from online brain training, particularly a program that continually adapts to a user's skill level. Best yet, researchers suggest that a mere 10 to 20 minutes per day will show improvements in cognitive skills in as soon as six days. Good news for those of you who can't live without those new shoes or celebrity gossip!

LAW OF UKRAINE ON PROTECTION OF LABOUR

This Law determines the principal provisions in respect of the enjoyment of the constitutional right of employees to the protection of their life and health in the course of their labour activities, to the proper, safe and healthy labour conditions; governs the relations between the employer and the employee in respect of the labour safety, hygiene and production environment issues with the involvement of the relevant state authorities, and establishes a uniform procedure of organising the labour protection in Ukraine.

Article 1. Definition of notions and terms

'Labour safety' is understood as a system of legal, socio-economic, organisational/technical, sanitary/hygiene and medical treatment and prevention measures and facilities focused on preserving the human life, health and ability to work in the course of the labour activities. ‘Employer’ is understood as the owner of the enterprise, institution, or organisation or a body authorised thereby regardless of the ownership form, line of business, and sector, or an individual, which/who uses the hired labour. ‘Employee’ is understood as an individual working at an enterprise, organisation or institution and performing the duties or functions in accordance with the labour agreement (contract).

Article 2. Scope of the law

This Law applies to all legal entities and individuals, which/who use the hired labour in accordance with the legislation, and to all employees.

Article 3. Labour protection legislation

The labour protection legislation consists of this Law, the Labour Code of Ukraine, the Law of Ukraine "On statutory state social insurance against industrial incidents and occupational diseases which have caused the loss of the ability to work" and regulations adopted according to them. If an international treaty of Ukraine accepted as binding by the Supreme Council (Parliament) of Ukraine specifies rules other than those contained in the labour protection legislation of Ukraine, the rules of the international treaty applies.

BASIC LAW OF UKRAINE ON COMPULSORY SOCIAL INSURANCE

In conformity with the Constitution of Ukraine, the Basic Law of Ukraine on compulsory social insurance (hereinafter referred to as Basic Law) stipulates the principles and general legal, financial and organizational basis of compulsory social insurance of citizens in Ukraine.

Article 1. Compulsory social insurance concept

Compulsory social insurance is a system of rights, obligations and guarantees stipulating the granting of social security, which includes provision to citizens in case of sickness, partial or complete disability, loss of breadwinner, unemployment under circumstances independent of the person's will, as well as in old age and other cases provided for by law. These are guaranteed at the expense of monetary funds formed of insurance premiums paid by owners or body empowered by him (hereinafter referred to as employer), citizens, as well as budgetary and other sources stipulated by law.

Article 2. Legislation of Ukraine on compulsory social insurance and its targets

Legislation of Ukraine on compulsory social insurance is made up of the present Basic Law and other normative acts, adopted in compliance with this law, which regulate relations in the sphere of compulsory social insurance. If an international agreement of Ukraine, approved by the Supreme Council of Ukraine, stipulates norms other than those envisaged by the legislation of Ukraine on compulsory social insurance, then applied will be the norms of the international agreement. It is the objective of the universal state social insurance legislation to institute guarantees related to the protection of rights and interests of individuals entitled to pensions and other forms of the social protection, including the entitlement thereto in case of a disease, the permanent or provisional loss of the ability to work, the unemployment due to circumstances beyond of their control, the need to care for a disabled child, a diseased family member, the family of an individual and members of his family, etc.

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