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5THE SECRET WAR IN THE UNITED STATES

1William Colby. Honorable Men: My life in the CIA (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1978), p. 100.

2Walter Trohan in US daily The Chicago Tribune, February 9, 1945.

3Related in Christopher Andrew, For the President's Eyes Only: Secret Intelligence and the American Presidency from Washington to Bush (New York: HarperCollins, 1995), p. 164.

4Christopher Shoemaker, The NSC staff: counselling the council (1991), p. 1.

5John Prados, Keepers of the Keys: A history of the National Security Council from Truman to Bush (New York: William Morow, 1991), p. 567. Previously John Prados published the valuable book, Presidents' Secret Wars: CIA and Pentagon Covert Operations since World War II (New York: William Morrow, 1986). By that time the secret armies in Western Europe had not yet been discovered and the book contains no reference to Gladio.

6Thomas Etzold and John Gaddis, Containment: Documents on American Policy and Strategy 1945-1950 (New York: Coumbia University Press, 1978), p. 12.

7Philip Willan, Puppetmasters: The Political Use of Terrorism in Italy (London: Constable, 1991), p. 20.

8Quoted in Andrew, Eyes Only, p. 171.

9Andrew, Eyes Only, p. 171.

10 Arthur Darling, The Central Intelligence Agency: An Instrument of Government. To 1950 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1990), p. 245.

11Darling, Agency, p. 246.

12NSC 10/2: National Security Council Directive on Office of Special Projects, June 18,

1948. Formerly Top Secret. Contained in full in Etzold and Gaddis, Containment, p. 125. The fundamental importance of NSC 10/2 for the secret anti-Communist armies in Western Europe has been realised by almost all Gladio scholars. Compare Jan de Willems (ed.), Gladio (Brussels: Editions EPO, 1991), p. 145; Jens Mecklenburg (ed.), Gladio: Die geheime Terror organisation der Nato (Berlin: Elefanten Press 1997), pp. 17 and 51; Leo Muller, Gladio - das Erbe des Kalten Krieges. Der Nato-Geheimbund und sein deutscher Vorlaufer (Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1991), p. 63.

13 Quoted in Andrew, Eyes Only, p. 171. Allen Dulles, Director of CIA from 1953 to 1961, privately reminded Truman that he could not escape responsibility in the Greek, Turkish, Italian or Philippine US covert action operations. To the CIA legal counsel Dulles wrote on the subject that 'At no time did Mr. Truman express other than complete agreement with the viewpoint I expressed' (ibid.).

14 Andrew, Eyes Only, p. 198.

15 Moscow Embassy Telegram Nr. 511: 'The Long Telegram', February 22, 1946. In: Etzold and Gaddis, Containment, p. 63.

16George Kennan as quoted in Etzold and Gaddis, Containment, p. 125.

17United States Senate. Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with respect to Intelligence activities. Book IV: Supplementary detailed staff reports on foreign and military intelligence, p. 36.

18Harris Smith, OSS. The Secret History of America's First Central Intelligence Agency (Berkley: University of California Press, 1972), p. 240.

19Thomas Powers, The Man Who Kept the Secrets: Richard Helms and the CIA (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980), p. 37. There does not seem to exist a biography of Frank Wisner. The best-published source on him thus remains the biography on Richard Helms by Powers. Helms first served under Wisner in the covert action department and in 1958 replaced Wisner when he was promoted to become the chief of CIA covert actions.

20Powers, Helms, p. 32.

268

21 Darling, Agency, p. 279.

22 Pietro Cedomi, Service secrets, guerre froide, et 'stay-behind Part II': La mise en place des resaux. In: Belgian periodical Fire! Le Magazin de I'Homme d'Action September/October 1991, p. 78.

23Powers, Helms, p. 48. Same figures by Andrew: Eyes Only, p. 193.

24Ludwell Montague, General Walter Bedell Smith OS Director of Central Intelligence (University Park: Pennsylvania University Press, 1992), p. 209. This would most

probably be a good book were it not so heavily censored by the CIA. Every second paragraph features '[one line deleted], [three paragraphs deleted], [seven lines deleted]' etc. It is in this context that brilliant American writer Mark Twain observed a century ago in his Following the Equator (1897) 'It is by the goodness of God in our country that we have those three unspeakably precious things: freedom of speech, freedom of conscience, and the prudence never to practise either of them.'

25Montague, Smith, p. 213.

26Colby, Honorable Men, p. 83.

27Ibid., pp. 81 and 82.

28Ibid., p. 83.

29This document, found by the author, has not previously been discussed in the context of the Gladio discoveries, but clearly is of direct importance for investigations into the Gladio command centre CPC. Memorandum by Lieutenant General Leon W. Johnson, US Representative to the NATO Military Committee Standing Group, of January 3, 1957, to the US Joint Chiefs of Staff on Clandestine Intelligence. Formerly Top Secret. Declassified in 1978. Found through computer-based Declassified Documents Reference System at LSE in London.

30As counter-insurgency became a fashionable word in the Kennedy administration all branches of the US military rushed to create 'special operations units' with the Navy forming for instance the SEAL (sea, air, land) teams trained to parachute into the sea, wearing scuba gear, equipped to blow up ships, and trained to fight on land once they emerged from the water.

31Colonel Aaron Bank, From OSS to Green Berets: The Birth of Special Forces (Novato: Presidio Press, 1986), pp. 175-176.

32Bank, Special Forces, pp. 168-169.

33Belgium periodical Fire! Le Magazin de I'Homme d'Action, p. 84. Also Austrian political magazine Zoom, Nr. 4 /5, 1996: Es muss nicht immer Gladio sein. Attentate, Waffenlager, Erinnerungslucken, p. 61.

34Mecklenburg, Gladio, p. 50.

35Gerardo Serravalle, Gladio (Roma: Edizioni Associate, 1991), p. 90.

36Powers, Helms, p. 89.

37British monthly Searchlight, January 1991.

38Pietro Cedomi, Service secrets, guerre froide et 'stay-behind. Part II': La mise en place des resaux. In: Belgian periodical Fire! Le Magazin de I'Homme d'Action September/October 1991, p. 77.

39Powers, Helms, p. 77.

40Christopher Simpson, Blowback. America's Recruitment of Nazis and its Effects on the Cold War (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1988), p. 289. Powers, Helms, p. 77.

41Address of Richard Helms, Director of CIA, at the funeral of Frank Gardiner Wisner, 1909-1965. Found through computer-based Declassified Documents Reference System.

42Jonathan Kwitny, An International Story. The CIA's Secret Armies in Europe. In: US periodical The Nation, April 6, 1992, pp. 444-448, p. 445.

43British daily The Times, May 7, 1996.

44Ramsey Clark, The Fire this Time: US War Crimes in the Gulf (New York: Thunder's Mouth Press, 1992), p. 31.

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43 Clark, Fire, p. 32.

46Resolution of the European Parliament on the Gladio Affair, November 22, 1990.

47US daily The Washington Post, November 14, 1990. The only other article by the

two articles of the Washington Post compare to 39 articles on Gladio in numerous countries in the same time period in the British daily newspaper The Guardian.

48 British daily The Independent, December 1,1990.

6THE SECRET WAR IN ITALY

1While it has been confirmed that the PCI received strong financial support from Moscow the historical debate as to the precise relationship between the PCI and the Soviet Communist Party during the Cold War is still going on. Sergio Romano, Italian ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1989, related that until the late 1970s the majority of the financial assets of the Italian Communist Party were provided by the Soviet Communist Party. Research on the links between PCI and Moscow available in English include: Joan Barth Urban, Moscow and the Italian Communist Party: From Togliatti to Berlinguer (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986). Gianni Cervetti, L'Oro di Mosca: La Verita sui Finanziamenti Sovietici al PCI Raccontata dal Diretto Protagonista (Milano Baldini & Castoldi 1993, second edition 1999); and Valerio Rima, Oro da Mosca. I Finanziamenti Sovietici al PCI dalla Rivoluzione d'Ottobre al Crollo dell' URSS (Milano: Mondadori, 1999).

Il terrorismo, le stragi ed il contesto storico politico. Redatta dal presidente della Commissione, Senatore Giovanni Pellegrino. Roma 1995, p. 20. This report of the Italian Senate ranges certainly among the most authoritative documents on Gladio and US covert action in Italy in general. It investigates Gladio, terrorism and long unclarified massacres. In order to avoid confusion with the equally valuable Senate report on Gladio presented in 2000, it will be quoted hereafter as 'Italian 1995 Senate report on Gladio and the massacres'.

3 Italian magazine Panorama, February 10, 1976. Quoted in Italian 1995 Senate report on Gladio and the massacres, p. 13.

4 Roberto Faenza, Gli americani in Italia (Milano: Editore Feltrinelli, 1976), pp. 10-13. The connection between the United States and the Mafia had already been revealed in 1951 by the US Senate investigation under Senator Kefauver. Compare US Senate Special Committee, Hearings on Organised Crime and Interstate Commerce, part 7, p. 1181 (1951). Italian historian Roberto Faenza was one of the first analysts to realise the enormous impact that US covert action had on Italy. His first book on the topic, published together with Marco Fini, came out in 1976 and focused on the immediate post-war years, entitled simply: Gli Americani in Italia. The foreword to the book read: 'For many people all around the world, including the average citizen of the United States, it has really been very hard and painful to realise slowly but surely the fact that the United States of America are the most conservative and the most counter-revolutionary force that there is in this world. But this is exactly how the situation is as this book demonstrates brilliantly showing the secret interventions of the American government into the internal affairs of the Italian population... the picture is the same as it has already been revealed by other studies for Greece, Iran, Guatemala, the Dominican Republic and many other countries... It is difficult to convince oneself of these dire facts.'

5 British daily The Observer, January 10, 1993. Referring to the January 1993 BBC2 television documentary: Allied to the Mafia.

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6 Mackenzie, W. J. M. History of the Special Operations Executive: Britain and the resistance in Europe (London: British Cabinet Officee, 1948), pp. 842 and 853. Unpublished original of the Public Records O f f i c e London, publication with Frank Cass forthcoming. In the Pacific theatre and specifically in the Philippines the same strategy of supplying and then weakening left-wing guerrillas during the Second World War was employed by the United States. Japan had invaded the Philippines in January 1942. The United States supported and trained partisans of various political orientations against the Japanese occupation in the Philippines including the left-wing strong Huk partisan movement which presented a strong force for social revolution. But as in Italy and Greece, the brothers in arms were betrayed. Once the Japanese were defeated the United States disarmed the guerrillas and the Huks were massacred in the presence of US officers till at least 1945. US historian Gabriel Kolko comments: The 'Huk leadership naively expected the Americans to tolerate them.' Compare Gabriel Kolko, Century of War Politics, Conflict, and Society since 1914 (New York: The New Press, 1994),"p. 363.

7 Geoffrey Harris, The Dark Side of Europe: The Extreme Right Today (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1994), pp. 3 and 15.

8 Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Ringmasters. First of the total three Francovich Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 10, 1992.

9 William Blum, Killing Hope: US Military and CIA Interventions since World War II (Maine: Common Courage Press, 1995), p. 28.

10Martin Lee, The Beast Reawakens (Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1997), p. 100.

11Jonathan Dunnage, Inhibiting Democracy in Post-War Italy: The Police Forces, 1943-48. In: Italian Studies, 51, 1996, p. 180.

12Stuart Christie, Stefano delle Chiaie (London: Anarchy Publications, 1984), p. 6.

13Ibid., p. 4.

14Tom Mangold, Cold Warrior: James Jesus Angleton; The CIA's Master Spy Hunter (London: Simon & Schuster, 1991), p. 20. It is unfortunate that Angleton's biographer Mangold does not give any details of Angleton's work with Fascists in the years after 1945 and does not mention how Angleton saved Borghese.

15William Corson, The Armies of Ignorance: The Rise of the American Intelligence Empire (New York: The Dial Press, 1977), pp. 298 and 299. As the operation was secret the money was dirty and had to be laundered first. Corson explains that this was done by first withdrawing 10 million dollars in cash from the Economic Stabilization Fund, laundering it through individual bank accounts and from there 'donate' it to a variety of CIA front organisations.

16Christie, delle Chiaie, p. 175.

17Denna Frank Fleming, The Cold War and Its Origins 1917-1960 (New York: Doubleday, 1961), p. 322.

18Thomas Powers, The Man Who Kept the Secrets: Richard Helms and the CIA (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980), p. 30.

19British daily The Guardian, January 15, 1992.

20During Italy's First Republic the military secret service due to repeated scandals was repeatedly forced to change its name. From its creation in 1949 until the first major scandal in 1965 the Italian military secret service was called S1FAR, while from 1965 to 1977 it operated with almost the same personnel under the name of SID. After yet another scandal, SID as of 1978 was split into two new branches which still operate today. The civilian branch was placed under the Interior Ministry and labelled SISDE (Servizio Informazioni Sicurezza Democratica), while the military branch remained under the Defence Ministry and operated under the label SISMI. The Directors of the Italian military secret services during the First Republic were: General Giovanni Carlo (1949-1951, SIFAR), General Umberto Broccoli (1951-1953, SIFAR), General Ettore

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MUSCO (1953-1955, SIFAR), General Giovanni De Lorenzo (1956-1962, SIFAR), General Egidio Viggiani ( 1 9 6 2 - 1 9 6 5 , S I F A R ) , G e n e r a l G i o v a nni Allavena (1965-1966, SID), General Eugenio Henke (1966-1970, SID), General Vito Miceli (1970-1974, SID), General Mario Casardi (1974-1978, SID), General Giuseppe Santovito (1978-1981, SISMI), General Nino Lugaresi (1981-1984, SISMI), Admiral Fulvio Martini (1984-1991, SISMI), Sergio Luccarini (1991, SISMI), General Luigi Ramponi (1991-1992, SISMI), General Cesare Pucci (1992-1993, SISMI).

21 Philip Willan, Puppetmasters: The Political Use of Terrorism in Italy (London: Constable, 1991), p. 34.

22 Mario Coglitore (ed.), La Notte dei Gladiatori. Omissioni e silenze delta Repubblica (Padova: Calusca Edizioni, 1992), p. 34.

23British daily The Observer, November 18, 1990

24Italian 1995 Senate report on Gladio and the massacres, p. 49.

25Coglitore, Gladiatori, p. 133.

26Pietro Cedomi, Service secrets, guerre froide et 'stay-behind. Part II': La mise en place des resaux. In: Belgian periodical Fire! Le Magazin de l'Homme d'Action, September/October 1991, p. 80.

27British daily The Observer, June 7, 1992.

28The document was declassified in 1994 and caused widespread criticism in Italy. Compare Italian daily La Stampa, November 27,1994.

29William Colby, Honourable Men: My Life in the CIA (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1978), p. 110.

30Roberto Faenza, Il malaffare. Dall' America di Kennedy all'Italia, a Cuba, al Vietnam (Milano: Editore Arnoldo Mondadori, 1978), p. 312.

31The existence of the document was revealed during the Gladio revelations in 1990. Italian 1995 Senate report on Gladio and the massacres, p. 25.

32Italian periodical Europeo, January 18 1991. The Italian parliamentary commission

knew of the existence of the 1956 document on Gladio only because it had come into the possession of a June 1, 1959 document on Gladio which referred back to the other document in precise terms, saying that it is dated November 26, 1956 and in its Italian version entitled 'Accordo fra il Servizio Informazioni Italiano ed il Servizio Informazioni USA relativo alla organizzazione ed all'attivita della rete clandestina post-occupazione (stay-behind) italo-statunitense.' [Agreement between SIFAR and the CIA concerning the organisation and activity of the secret Italian-US post-occupation network (stay-behind).] The original 1959 document is contained in Coglitore, Gladiatori, pp. 118-130.

33Belgian periodical Fire, January 1992, p. 59.

34Ibid., p. 62.

35Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Puppeteers. Second of the total three Francovich Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 17, 1992.

36Colby, Honourable Men, p. 128.

37Ibid., pp. 109-120.

38The document is quoted in Faenza, Malaffare, p. 313. Italian historian Roberto Faenza in

the 1970s researched in the US archives and by using the FOIA got hold of the Demagnetize document revealing for the first time 'this heavy deviation of the Italian Secret Service'.

39Stato Maggiore della Difesa. Servizio Informazioni delle Forze Annate. Ufficio R - Sezione SAD: Le forze speciali del SIFAR e I'operazione GLADIO. Roma, 1 Giugno 1959. This document was found by judge Felice Casson in the archives of SIFAR in Rome in 1990 and started the Gladio revelations in Italy and beyond. The document is contained in Coglitore, Gladiatori, pp. 118-130.

40Cobly, Honourable Men, p. 136.

41Telegram sent by the Secretary of State to the US embassy in Rome on October 18, 1961. Quoted in Faenza, Malaffare, p. 311. Faenza offers a very good analysis on

272

Kennedy's plan to open Italy to the left. Compare Faenza, Malaffare, pp. 307-373 ('L' apertura a sinistra)

42 Quoted in Regine Igel, Andreotti, Politik zwischen Geheimdienst und Mafia (Munchen: Herbig Verlag, 1997), p. 49. Her undated reference is the US magazine New Statesman.

43Faenza, Malaffare, p. 310.

44Igel, Andreotti, p. 50.

45Faenza, Malaffar, p. 336.

46Jens Mecklenburg (ed.), Gladio: Die geheime Terrororganisation der Nato (Berlin: Elefanten Press, 1997), p. 30. And Coglitore, Gladiatori, p. 185. It was a former General of the SID who revealed that these attackers were Gladiators during interrogations in the 1980s in the context of the Propaganda Due (in short P2) scandal.

47Jean Francois Brozzu-Gentile: L' affaire Gladio (Paris: Editions Albin Michel, 1994), p. 77. And Faenza, Malaffare, p. 315. See also Willan, Puppetmasters, p. 84.

48Italian 1995 Senate report on Gladio and the massacres, p. 85.

49Ibid.

50 State Maggiore della Difesa. Servizio Informazioni delle Forze Armate. Ufficio R - Sezione SAD: Le forze speciali del SIFAR e l'operazione GLADIO. Roma, l Giugno 1959. The document is contained in Coglitore, Gladiatori, pp. 118-130. Investigations into Piano Solo suggested that 731 persons were to be deported, while the Senate commission investigating Operation Gladio found that it is much more likely that between 1100 and 1200 influential people were to be imprisoned in the Gladio headquarters CAG on Sardinia. Scandalously the military secret service refused to make the Gladio proscription lists available to the parliamentary commission. 'This is a very grave situation, for one can assume that the list contains the names of parliamentarians and political functionaries, and the publication of it would withdraw any basis from the claim that the events of 1964 had been cautious operations in order to prevent public disturbances', the Senators concluded. See Italian 1995 Senate report on Gladio and the massacres, p. 89.

51A good description of the coup is contained in Richard Collin, The De Lorenzo Gambit: The Italian Coup Manque of 1964 (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1976). Collin, who graduated from Harvard, lectured in Maryland, specialised in military affairs and served as an officer of staff of the US Secretary of the Army, later as the adviser to the Defense attache at the US Embassy in Rome and later as a consultant to the Saudi Defence Forces, offers a remarkably good early narrative of Piano Solo in his 60-pages booklet. Unfortunately he excludes almost completely the role that die United States played behind the scenes.

52Collin, Coup, p. 60.

53Ibid. His source is the Italian political magazine Avanti!, July 26, 1964.

54Coglitore, Gladiatori, p. 186. See also Willan, Puppetmasters, p. 85.

Ideas. Vol. 19, 1994, p. 116.

56 Franco Ferraresi, A Secret Structure Codenamed Gladio. In: Italian Politics. A Review, 1992, p. 41. The silent Gladio coup would never have been exposed without the work of investigative journalists. Starting in Spring 1967 journalist Raffaele Jannuzzi (who later entered parliament to represent the Socialists) in the political magazine Espresso informed a startled Italian public that they had only narrowly escaped a coup d'etat (Complotto al Quirinale, Espresso, May 14, 1967). De Lorenzo's attempt to make journalist Jannuzzi shut up with a defamation suit led to counter-productive results as in the process such a large quantity of evidence surfaced that the government was ultimately forced to concede to a full parliamentary investigation into 'the events of 1964'

273

(Italian Senate. Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sugli eventi del giungo-luglio 1964. Findings published in two volumes (Majority and Minority Report) in Rome in 1971).

57 Relazione della Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sugli eventi del giungno-luglio 1964, Roma 1971, p. 67. Quoted in Igel, Andreotti, p. 51. And Willan, Puppetmasters, p. 38.

58 Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sugli eventi del giugno-luglio 1964, Relazione di minoranza, Roma 1971, p. 307. Compare Igel, Andreotti, p. 53.

59Quoted in Igel, Andreotti, p. 52.

60Italian judge Carlo Palermo, upon having discovered links of Licio Gelli to right-wing terrorists, had ordered the anti-terror office of SISMI to help him in his investigation. The anti-terror office of the SISMI on April 16, 1983, presented details on the US secret hand in Italy. It was maybe the first time that the unit had carried out its duty and tellingly the anti-terror office of the SISMI was thereafter closed down immediately. The promising career of Emilio Santillos, Director of the SISMI anti-terror office, ended abruptly soon after the report while also the biographies of his fellow investigators took a tragic twist. SISMI Colonel Florio died in a mysterious car accident, SISMI Colonel Serrentiono left the service 'for reasons of ill health', Major Rossi committed suicide and only Major Antonio de Salvo left the anti-terror office in good health and joined the Freemasons. Quoted in Igel, Andreotti, p. 232.

61British daily The Observer, February 21,1988.

62 Senato delta Repubblica Italiana. Relazione delta Commissione Parlamentare d'inchiesta Sulla Loggia P2, Roma 1984.

63In an interview with Willan. Quoted in Willan, Puppetmasters, p. 55.

64Igel, Andreotti, p. 229.

65Quoted in the British periodical The New Statesman, September 21,1984.

66Hugh O'Shaughnessy: Gladio. Europe's best kept secret. They were the agents who were to 'stay behind' if the Red Army overran Western Europe. But the network that was set up with the best intentions degenerated in some countries into a front for terrorism and far-right political agitation. In British daily The Observer, June 7,1992.

67Gentile, Gladio, p. 28.

68Ibid.

69British daily television news program Newsnight on BBC1 on April 4, 1991.

70Willan, Puppetmasters, p. 41.

71Italian 1995 Senate report on Gladio and the massacres, p. 97.

72Ibid., p. 164.

73 Willan, Puppetmasters, p. 97. Buscetta testified to Falcone in December 1984. Later courageous Falcone was killed by the Mafia.

74Liggio to the Reggio Calabria assize court in 1986. Quoted in Willan, Puppetmasters, p. 97.

75Willan, Puppetmasters, p. 94.

76Colby, Honourable Men, p. 395.

77Compare for instance McNamara, Robert, In Retrospect: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam (New York: Random House, 1995).

78Willian, Puppetmasters, p. 93.

79British political magazine Statewatch, January 1991.

80Gentile, Gladio, p. 105.

81British political magazine Statewatch, January 1991. And Gentile, Gladio, p. 19.

82Italian political magazine Europeo, November 16, 1990.

83Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Puppeteers. Second of the total three Francovich Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 17, 1992.

84Ibid.

85The results in the subsequent years in the elections for the Italian parliament were these for the three dominating parties DCI. PCI and PSI:

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Source: http://www.aitec.it/paradisi/costitutz/c_app3.htm.

86 Pike Report: Report of the House Select Committee on Intelligence [Pike Committee], Ninety-fourth Congress (New York: Village Voice, 1976), pp. 193 and 195.

87 Joe Garner, We Interrupt this broadcast. The Events that stopped our lives. From the Hindenburg Explosion to the Death of John F. Kennedy Jr (Naperville: Sourcebooks, 2000), p. 87.

88Quoted in Willan, Puppetmasters, p. 220.

89Willan, Puppetmasters, p. 325.

90Quoted in Willan, Puppetmasters, p. 219.

91Italian 1995 Senate report on Gladio and the massacres, pp. 294 and 295.

92Ibid., p. 294

93British daily The Guardian, January 16, 1991.

94International news service Associated Press, November 20,1990.

95BBC reporter Peter Marshall interviewing Serravalle for the Newsnight special report on Gladio of April 4, 1991.

96Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Puppeteers. Second of the total three Francovich Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 17, 1992.

97Italian 1995 Senate report on Gladio and the massacres, pp. 242 and 364.

98Senato della Repubblica. Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul terrorismo in

Italia e sulle cause della mancata individuazione dei responsabili delle stragi: Stragi e terrorismo in Italia dal dopoguerra al 1974. Relazione del Gruppo Democratici di Sinistra l'Ulivo. Roma June 2000. Hereafter quoted as 2000 Senate report on Gladio and the massacres. The 8 members were: On. Valter Bielli, On. Antonio Attili, On. Michele Cappella, On. Piero Ruzzante, Sen. Alessandro Pardini, Sen. Raffaele Bertoni, Sen. Graziano Cioni, Sen. Angelo Staniscia. As quoted in Philip Willan, US 'supported anti-left terror in Italy'. Report claims Washington used a strategy of tension in the cold war to stabilise the centre-right. In: British daily The Guardian, June 24, 2000.

99 Italian 2000 Senate report on Gladio and the massacres, p. 41.

100Ibid.

101Ibid., p. 42.

102Philip Willan, US 'supported anti-left terror in Italy'. Report claims Washington used a strategy of tension in the cold war to stabilise the centre-right. In: British daily The Guardian, June 24, 2000.

103Philip Willan, US 'supported anti-left terror in Italy'. Report claims Washington used a strategy of tension in the cold war to stabilise the centre-right. In: British daily The Guardian, June 24, 2000.

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7 THE SECRET WAR IN FRANCE

1 The First French Republic followed the French Revolution of 1789 and lasted from 1792 to 1799. The Second French Republic followed the European revolutions and lasted from 1848 to 1852. The Third French Republic began in 1886 and ended with the defeat during the Second World War in 1940.

2 Edward Rice-Maximin, Accommodation and Resistance: The French Left, Indochina and the Cold War 1944-1954 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986), p. 12.

3 Philip Agee and Louis Wolf Louis, Dirty Work: The CIA in Western Europe (Secaucus: Lyle Stuart Inc., 1978), p. 182.

4Quoted in Rice-Maximin, Resistance, p. 95. The speech was held on January 28, 1950.

5Hoyt S. Vandenberg, Memorandum for the President Harry S. Truman. Central Intelligence Group, Washington, November 26, 1946. First classified as top-secret, now in the Harry Truman library.

6Roger Faligot and Pascal Krop, La Piscine. Les Services Secrets Francois 1944-1984 (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1985), p. 84.

7Roger Faligot and Remi Kaufer, Les Maitres Espions. Histoire Mondiale du Renseignement. Tome 2. De la Guerre Froide a nos jours (Paris: Editions Laffont, 1994), p. 56.

8Faligot and Krop, Piscine, p. 85.

9Rice-Maximin, Resistance, p. 53.

10Faligot and Krop, Piscine, p. 85.

11Ibid., p. 86.

12Faligot and Kaufer, Espions, p. 56.

13Faligot and Krop, Piscine, p. 86.

14Hoyt S. Vandenberg, Memorandum for the President Harry S. Truman. Central Intelligence Group, Washington, November 26, 1946. First classified as top-secret, now in the Harry Truman library.

15Trevor Barnes, The Secret Cold War: The CIA and American Foreign Policy in Europe, 1946-1956. In: The Historical Journal, Vol. 24, No. 2, 1981, p. 413.

16Quoted in Jan de Willems, Gladio (Brussels: Editions EPO, 1991), p. 35.

17Jean-Francois Brozzu-Gentile, L' affaire Gladio (Paris: Editions Albin Michel, 1994), p. 190.

18Christopher Simpson, Blowback: America's Recruitment of Nazis and its Effects on the Cold War (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1988), p. 127.

19Senato delta Repubblica. Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul terrorismo in Italia e sulle cause della mancata individuazione dei responsabiliy delle stragi: Il terrorismo, le stragi ed il contesto storico politico. Redatta dal presidente della Commissione, Senatore Giovanni Pellegrino. Roma 1995, p. 36.

20Irwin Wall, The United States and the Making of Postwar France, 1945-1954 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 150.

21Faligot and Krop, Piscine, p. 88. And Jacques Baud: Encyclopedic du renseignement et des services secrets (Paris: Lavauzelle, 1997), p. 546.

22No author specified, Spotlight: Western Europe: Stay-Behind. In: French periodical Intelligence Newsletter. Le Monde du Renseignement, December 5, 1990.

23Faligot and Krop, Piscine, p. 90.

24Ibid., their interview with Louis Mouchon. Ibid., Piscine, p. 89.

25Faligot and Kaufer, Espions, p. 57.

26British weekly The Economist, April 16, 1994.

27Jonathan Kwitny, The CIA's Secret Armies in Europe: An International Story. In: The Nation, April 6, 1992, pp. 446 and 447.

28Ibid.

29Ibid.

30Italian periodical Europeo, January 18, 1991.

276

31 The Italian daily L'Unita published the document in Italian in a special edition on November 14, 1990.

32 The document is quoted in Roberto Faenza, Il malaffare. Dall' America di Kennedy all'Italia, a Cuba, al Vietnam (Milano: Editore Arnoldo Mondadori, 1978), p. 313.

33Faenza, Malaffare, p. 313

34Gentile, Gladio, p. 144.

35French daily Le Monde, November 16, 1990. And Pietro Cedomi: Service secrets, guerre froide et 'stay-behind. Part II': La mise enplace des resaux. In: Belgian periodical Fire! Le Magazin de l'Homme d'Action, September/October 1991, pp. 74-80.

36Faligot and Krop: Piscine. p. 165.

37French daily Le Monde, January 12, 1998.

38Douglas Porch: The French Secret Services: From the Dreyfus Affair to the Gulf War (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1995), p. 395.

39Porch, Secret Services, p. 395.

40This description of Operation Ressurection is from Ph. Bernert who offers it in his book: Roger Wybot et la bataille pur la DST. Quoted in Gentile, Gladio, p. 286.

41Porch, Secret Service, p. 396.

42Ibid.

43Ibid., p. 408.

44Jonathan Kwitny, The CIA's Secret Armies in Europe: An International Story. In: The Nation, April 6, 1992, pp. 446 and 447.

45William Blum, Killing Hope: US Military and CIA interventions since World War II (Maine: Common Courage Press, 1995), p. 149.

46Ibid.

47Ibid.

48Porch, Secret Services, p. 398.

49As revealed for instance by former 11th Demi Brigade Du Choc commander officer Erwan Bergot in his memoirs: Le Dossier Rouge. Services Secrets Contre FLN (Paris: Grasset Publishers, 1976)

50Erich Schmidt Eenboom in the 1990s wrote on Gladio and the secret French terror operations in his unpublished nine-pages essay Die 'Graue' und die 'Rote' Hand. Geheimdienste in Altenstadt. Both quotes Ibid., pp. 3 and 7. French terrorist operations against the FLN in Germany included: Assassination, by machine gun, of FLN General Secretary Ait Acene in Bonn on November 5, 1958. Assassination, by a single short-range shot of FLN member Abd el Solvalar in the railyway station of Saarbrucken on January 19, 1959. Assassination of Lorenzen, friend of Hamburger arms producer Otto Schluter, by a bomb explosion in Schluters warehouse on September 28, 1956. On June 3, 1957 Schliiter himself survived an assassination attack, but his mother was killed in the event (ibid.).

51British daily Sunday Times, October 12, 1997. And French daily Le Monde, October 17, 1996.

52Jean-Luc Einaudi, La Bataille de Paris (Paris: Seuil, 1991).

53Swiss weekly Wochenzeitung, December 14, 1990.

54British daily Sunday Times, October 12, 1997. And French daily Le Monde, October 17, 1996.

55Ibid.

56Jeffrey M. Bale, Right wing Terrorists and the Extraparliamentary Left in Post World War 2 Europe: Collusion or Manipulation? In: Lobster Magazine (UK), Nr. 2, October 1989, p. 6.

57Jonathan Kwitny, The CIA's Secret Armies in Europe: An International Story. In: The Nation, April 6, 1992, pp. 446 and 447.

58Porch, Secret Services, p. 409.

59Ibid., p. 419.

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