2. Middle English

2.1. General characteristics

An analysis of the vocabulary in the Middle English period shows great instability and constant and rapid change. Many words became obsolete, and if preserved, then only in some dialects: many more appeared in the rapidly developing language to reflect the ever-changing life of the speakers and under the influence of contacts with other nations.

2.2. Means of enriching vocabulary in Middle English

2.2.1. Internal means of enriching vocabulary

Though the majority of Old English suffixes are still preserved in Middle English, they becoming less productive, and words formed by means of word-derivation in Old English can be treated as such only etymologically.

Words by means of word-composition in Old English, in Middle English are often understood as derived words.

2.2.2. External means of enriching vocabulary

The principal means of enriching vocabulary in Middle English are not internal, but external borrowings. Two languages in succession enriched the vocabulary English of that period – the Scandinavian language and the French language, the nature of the borrowings and their amount reflecting the conditions of the contacts between the English and these languages.

• Scandinavian borrowings

The Scandinavian invasion and the subsequent settlement of the Scandinavians on the territory of England, the constant contacts and intermixture of the English and Scandinavians brought about many changes in different spheres of the English language: word-stock, grammar and phonetics. The relative ease of the mutual penetration of the languages was conditioned by the circumstances of the Anglo-Scandinavians contacts.

Due to contacts between the Scandinavians and the English people many words were borrowed from the Scandinavian language, for example:

Nouns: law, fellow, sky, skirt, skill, egg, anger, awe, bloom, knife, root, bull, cake, husband, leg, wing, guest, loan, race

Adjectives: big, weak, wrong, ugly, twin

Verbs: call, cast, take, happen, scare, hail, want, bask, gape, kindle

Pronouns: they, them, their

The conditions and the consequences of various borrowings were different.

1. Sometimes the English language borrowed a word which it had no synonym. These words were simply added top the vocabulary. Examples: law, fellow

2. The English synonym was ousted by the borrowing. Scandinavian Taken (to take) and callen (to call) ousted the English synonyms niman and clypian, respectively.

3. Both the words, the English and the corresponding Scandinavian, are preserved, but they became different in meaning. Compare Modern English native words and Scandinavian borrowings:

Native Scandinavian borrowing

Heaven sky

Starve die

4. Sometimes a borrowed word and an English word are etymologically doublets, as words originating from the same source in Common Germanic.

Native Scandinavian borrowing

shirt skirt

shatter scatter

raise rear

5. Sometimes an English word and its Scandinavian doublet were the same in meaning but slightly different phonetically, and the phonetic form of the Scandinavian borrowing is preserved in English, having ousted the English counterpart. For example, modern English to give, to get come from the Scandinavian gefa, geta, this ousted the English giefan and gietan, respectively. Similar English words: gift, forget, guild, gate, again.

6. There may be a shift of meaning. Thus, the word dream originally meant “joy, pleasure”; under the influence of the related Scandinavian word it developed its modern meaning.

• French borrowings

It stands to reason that the Norman Conquest and the subsequent history left deep traces in the English language, mainly in the form of borrowings in words connected with such spheres of social and political activity where French-speaking Normans had occupied for a long time all places of importance. For example:

• Government and legislature:

government, noble, baron, prince, duke, court, justice, judge, crime, prison, condemn, sentence, parliament, etc.

• military life:

army, battle, peace, banner, victory, general, colonel, lieutenant, major, etc.

• religion:

religion, sermon, prey, saint, charity, etc.

• city crafts:

painter, tailor, carpenter, etc. (but country occupations remained English: shepherd, smith, etc.)

• pleasure and entertainment:

music, art, feast, pleasure, leisure, supper, dinner, pork, beef, mutton, etc. (but the corresponding names of domestic animals remained English: pig, cow, sheep)

• words of everyday life:

air, place, river, large, age, boil, branch, brush, catch, change, chain, chair, table, choice, cry, cost, etc.

• relationship:

aunt, uncle, nephew, cousin.

The place of the French borrowings within the English language was different:

1. A word may be borrowed from the French language to denote notions unknown to the English up to the time:

Government, parliament, general, colonel, etc.

2. The English synonym is ousted by the French borrowing:

English French

micel large

here army

ēa river

3. Both the words are preserved, but they are stylistically different:

English French

to begin to commence

to work to labour

to leave to abandon

life existence

look regard

ship vessel

As we see, the French borrowings are generally more literary or even bookish, the English word – a common one; but sometimes the English word is more literary. Compare:

Foe (native, English) – enemy (French borrowing)

4. Sometimes the English language borrowed many words with the same word-building affix. The meaning of the affix in this case became clear to the English-speaking people, and they began to add it to the English words, thus forming word-hybrids. For instance: the suffix –ment entered the language within such words as “government”, “parliament”, “agreement”, but later there appeared such English-French hybrids, such as fulfillment, amazement

The suffix –ance/-ence, which was an element of such borrowed words as “innocence”, “ignorance”, “repentance”, now also forms words-hybrids, such as hindrance

A similar thing: French borrowings “admirable”, “tolerable”, “reasonable”, but also:

Readable, eatable, unbearable.

5. One of the consequences of the borrowings from French was the appearance of the etymological doublets.

- from the Common Indoeuropean:

native borrowed

fatherly paternal

- from the Common Germanic:

native borrowed

yard garden

ward guard

choose choice

- from Latin:

Earlier later

(Old English borrowing) (Middle English borrowing)

Mint money

Inch ounce

6. Due to the great number of French borrowings these appeared in the English language such families of words, which though similar in their root meaning, are different in origin:

native borrowed

mouth oral

sun solar

see vision

7. There are calques on the French phrase:

It’s no doubt Se n’est doute

Without doubt Sans doubte

Out of doubt Hors de doute