2. Syntactic expressive means and stylistic devices

Stylistic value of syntax is not confined only to the length and structure of the sentence, however. Stylistic system of language operates a great number of specially elaborated media – syntactic expressive means and stylistic devices. Syntactic expressive means and stylistic devices are such sentence models, which impart to the sentence additional logical or emotional information and enlarge its stylistic and pragmatic potential. According to the type of the basic syntactic model transformation all syntactic stylistic devices can be subdivided into the following groups:

1. syntactic stylistic devices based on the reduction of sentence model;

2. syntactic stylistic devices based on the extension of sentence model;

3. syntactic stylistic devices based on the change of word order;

4. syntactic stylistic devices based on special types of formal and semantic correlation of syntactic constructions within a text;

5. syntactic stylistic devices based on the transposition of sentence meaning;

All syntactic models that belong to the above mentioned groups are considered stylistically marked and are opposed to the neutral syntactic model – a simple declarative sentence (просте розповідне речення), such as The door opened, I want to meet him, Irene made no reply, etc.

2.1. Syntactic stylistic devices based on the reduction of sentence model

Ellipsis

Ellipsis is an intentional omission of the subject, predicate or both principal parts of a sentence in cases when they are semantically redundant. The meaning of the omitted member can be easily restored from the context.

Elliptical sentences cannot be viewed as stylistic device in direct intercourse, in official or scientific oral discourses because in this sphere of communication they are devoid of any additional pragmatic value. In oral speech the phenomenon of ellipsis is rather norm than a special stylistic device. A speaker uses elliptical sentences in order to save needless efforts, to spare time and language means.

Elliptical sentences acquire expressiveness when they are used in emotive prose (or sometimes in poetry) as a means of imitating real colloquial speech, live talk or as a means of exposing character’s emotions:

Augustus. Hullo! Who are you?

The clerk. The stuff.

Augustus. You the stuff! What do you mean, man? Where are the others?

The clerk. At the front (B.Show).

It would be a good idea to bring along one of the Doc’s new capsules. Could have gone into a drug store and asked for a glass of water and take one (D. Carter).

Ниє-омліває материне серце. А тут уже й ніч наступає, непроглядна темнота надходить. Марина ні жива ні мертва. Коли чує – щось лізе в хату, ледве лізе...

• Ти, дочко?

• Я, мамо!

• Де ж це ти була так довго? Де барилася?

• Світіть, мамо, світло. Благодать Божа!

• Яка благодать? (Панас Мирний).

Nominative sentences

Nominative (or nominal) sentence is a one-member sentence, which kernel component is expressed by a noun or noun-like element (gerund, numeral). The surface structures of nominative sentences in English and Ukrainian are common – the structural form of nominative sentences can be either extended or expanded. The former consists of two or more nominal components connected both syndetically and asyndetically. Expanded nominal sentence consists of two or more nominal components connected by means of co-ordinate conjunctions:

An aching business (J. Galsworthy).

The gloomy dockside and the grey river; the bustle with baggage, and the crowded tender (J. Galsworthy).

Високий ранок, камінь не нагрітий.

Сочистий кущ і поруч синя тінь.

Вузьке від спеки річкове корито.

Уламки скель. Акварилева рінь (Є Маланюк).

The structural and semantic diversity of nominative sentences as well as their position and distribution within a certain context impart rather significant stylistic value to them. A sequence of nominative sentences makes for the dynamic description of the events, depiction of the time of the action, the place, the attendant circumstances, its participants, etc. Or on the contrary, the dissemination of nominative sentences into the context breaks the even flow of narration, highlights the very minute changes in the depicted situation, character’s mood, thoughts, recollections and emotions. A nominative sentence in final position sums up (logically or emotionally) the information of the passage. A single nominal sentence in the initial position introduces the topic of the passage, catches reader’s attention, recalls certain ideas and makes them vivid, shape and specifies the thing, event, phenomenon:

He, and the falling light and dying fire, the time-worn room, the solitude, the wasted life, and gloom, were all in fellowship. Ashes, and dust, and ruins (Ch. Dickens).

Батько... ниюча рана. І характер, і мова, і чорний чуб у нього від батька, або, точніше, без батька. У тридцять сьомім чорний ворон забрав батька і повів сибірськими етапами. І нічого-нічого, тільки – син “ворога народу”...

Specific stylistic function is attributed to other structural and semantic types of one-member sentences: imperative, exclamatory, infinitival, vocative and one-word (or quasi) sentences. They are frequently resorted to in poetry and emotive prose as an efficient means of colloquial pastiche (стилізації під розмовне мовлення):

Keep aside! Keep aside! Pass on, pass on! (M.R. Anard).

Thieves! Fire! How funny. To think of it! (S. Maugham).

Damn your money (S. Maugham).

To be or not to be? (W. Shakespeare).

“Do you love me?” – “Uh huh” (E. Hemingway).

І Ольга усміхнулась:

• Гаразд.

• Ото народу збереться.

• Еге... (І. Микитенко).

Ні! Їй-богу ж ні ( І. Кочерга).

–Чолом, панове!

–Чолом, пане Максиме (П. Панч).

Aposiopesis (Break –in-the-narrative)

Like ellipsis aposiopesis is also realized through the incompleteness of the sentence structure, though this incompleteness is of different structural and semantic nature. It is an abrupt break off of the narration caused by the speaker’s unwillingness to proceed or his/her disability to speak because of the emotional rush, hesitation, indecision, etc. Aposiopesis is a common feature of colloquial speech. In literary discourse aposiopesis, like ellipsis and one-member sentences, is mostly to be found in dialogues, direct, indirect or represented speech. This stylistic device is used in emotive prose with the purpose of conveying speaker’s emotions without naming them directly or expressing such modal meanings as threat, warning, doubt, excitement, promise:

I do apologize, Madam, I feel so… I would not have troubled… (S. Hill).

Something like despair ravaged the heart of his watching Fleur. If she left him for Winfrid! – But surely – no- her father, her house, her dog, her friends, her – her collection of – of – she would not – could not give them up! (J. Galsworthy).

Я їх годую, одягаю, а вони... (К.Карий).

А там... а там... сину, сину! Та й не доказала (Т. Шевченко).

Aposiopesis, in a broad sense, is not confined only to the function of speech characterization. A writer may deliberately leave his whole work (a story, a novel, a play) incomplete (unfinished) thus making the readers to arrive at the conclusion predetermined by the whole semantic structure of the text on their own.

Asyndeton and Apokoinu constructions

Asyndeton is deliberate omission of structurally significant conjunctions and connectives. The omission of conjunctions and connectives between the parts of complex and compound sentences or between homogeneous parts of the sentence imparts strong semantic and emotional colouring to the whole utterance, shapes its rhythmic contour, makes the speech dynamic and expressive. Sometimes it implies speaker’s nervousness and impatience:

Who makes fame? Critics, writers, stockbrokers, women (S. Maugham).

The train had stopped during the forenoon and three times we had heard planes coming, seen them pass overhead, watched them go far to the left and heard them bombing on the main highroad (E. Hemingway).

Чоловіки, в кого є худобина, обкошують осоку навколо кущів – правління дозволило (Григір Тютюнник).

Ящірка перебігла обніжок, дикі бджоли гудуть медом, ховрашок свистить, цвіркунці одно пиляють у свої скрипки (Ю. Яновський).

Asyndeton is frequently to be found in poetry where it is an indispensable means of preserving rhythm of the verse:

Fathers, mothers, uncles, cousins,

Cocking tails and pricking whiskers,

Families by ten and dozens,

Brothers, sisters, husbands, wives –

Followed the Piper for their lives (R. Browing).

Ті журавлі, і їх прощальні сурми...

Тих відлітань сюїта голуба...

Натягне дощ свої осінні струни,

торкне ті струни пальчиком верба (Л.Костенко).

The last stylistic device that promotes the incompleteness of sentence structure is apocoinu construction. In apocoinu construction the omission of the pronominal (adverbial) connective of the complex sentence creates the blend of the main and subordinate clause. As a result of this process the predicative or the object of the first clause is simultaneously used as the subject of the second one. The double syntactical function played by one word produces the general impression of clumsiness of speech and is used as a means of speech characterization in dialogues, reported speech and the type of narration known as “entrusted” in which the author entrusts the telling of the story to an imaginary narrator who is either an observer or participant of the described events. The blend of the sentence elements is also the exposure of speaker’s lack of education or language incompetence. Such structures always cause misunderstanding and humour:

There was a whisper in my family that it was love drove him out and not love of the wife he married (J. Steinbeck).

Тим жителям, які мають собак і не прив’язані або зриваються з цепу, кореспонденції приносили назад (з пояснювальної записки).

Довідка видана виконкомом Дружелюбківської сільської ради гр.Демчуку Гнату Тодоровичу про те, що в його господарстві є корова і бере активну участь в продажі молока державі.

Consequently, the process of reduction may encompass either the whole sentence (or its part), as in ellipsis, one-member sentences and aposiopesis, and the means of sentences connection in the text, as in asyndeton an apocoinu constructions. The reduced syntactic structures are stylistically marked models which perform a definite stylistic function within a context of a literary text.