Schuman S. - The IAF Handbook of Group Facilitation (2005)(en)

other individuals, a complex system emerges as a whole greater than the sum of its parts. Unlike the airplane example described above, by studying each of the individuals, we achieve only an incomplete understanding of the whole. When we think about great team experiences, the team typically exhibits a unique identity, and great ideas or achievements cannot be attributed to only one or a few individuals, but rather to the whole team. The same is true when we reflect on great meetings or the culture of great organizations such as Disney, Herman Miller, or Cirque de Soleil.

4.At the edge of chaos is where systems are most adaptable and creative. Complexity scientists describe complex adaptive systems as moving among three states: stability at one end of a continuum, chaos at the other, and a state called the edge of chaos in between. When systems are in this zone between stability and chaos, they are most adaptable and creative. The elements of the system do not lock into place but do not dissolve into anarchy. There is a balance between order and disorder. This is where innovations happen.

In organizations, the edge of chaos is that space where new ideas and unexpected directions emerge and flourish. When skunk works became popular in research and development organizations, it was an attempt to provide an environment that would create and protect this edge of chaos. The features of skunk works typically include guidance by a set of simple rules and freedom from most of the organization’s policies and procedures and provision of resources and an environment (physical and cultural) that fuel the creative interaction among team members.

5.Small changes can generate big effects. The relationships and connections between the parts of a complex system can be the underlying cause for changes and new ideas to accelerate and multiply throughout the system. This produces another key characteristic of complex adaptive systems: small changes or ideas might create big effects (which is precisely what happens in skunk works). This phenomenon represents a very different notion from the Newtonian view that actions and reactions are equal and opposite. In organizations, we typically assume that it takes big change efforts to create big change, but we have found that many of these huge efforts failed. However, on any given day, a rumor can spread like wildfire and have a huge impact on careers, business decisions, or Wall Street at lightning speed.

These five characteristics of complex adaptive systems provide a general framework for facilitation. We think facilitators can go even further and define a set of design principles to inform specific design choices. In the remainder of this chapter we focus on three such design principles:

1.Engage the whole system first.

2.Use simple rules.

3.Create an edge.

DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR FACILITATING DYNAMIC MEETINGS

Principle 1: Engage the Whole System First

This design principle derives from the characteristic that the whole of a complex adaptive system is greater than the sum of its parts. This principle suggests the importance of keeping the system perspective present in the minds of all participants. This system frame sets the stage for all of the discussions that emerge and allows participants to see how their particular perspective both contributes to the overall result and is affected by the interplay between the various groups and stakeholders within the system.

To garner this synergy during a meeting, especially with a group of people grappling with a contentious or complex issue, first engage the group of attendees with a system perspective of the issue at hand rather than kick off the meeting with specific stakeholders focusing on their individual perspective on the situation. There are several ways to do this in a meeting or multiple meetings.

One tactic is to begin the meeting with small, heterogeneous groups, that is, groups comprising five to seven participants who have different perspectives or allegiances, to focus on the whole system that they represent rather than on their particular stake or position. These minisystems (in complexity science terms, fractals) contain the diversity of views, opinions, hopes, and concerns that are inherent in the larger system.

There have been a number of large change approaches that have developed over the last fifteen years, such as Janoff and Weisbord’s Future Search Conferences (Weisbord, 1992), Dannemiller-Tyson’s Real Time Strategic Change (Dannemiller and others, 1994), and Axelrod and Axelrod’s Conference Model (1993). Although each of these has its own unique approach, one common denominator is that they all bring the whole system into the room.

Another approach that is used to put the whole system first is the World Café process, which was conceived by Juanita Brown (World Café Community Foundation 2003). This approach, described in Exhibit 14.1, allows the entire group, even a large group of over a hundred people, to have one conversation in which ideas, questions, and themes around an issue can begin to be linked and connected.

Graphic recording on a large wall or chart is another method that can be used to put the whole system first. A combination of text and graphics is created that allows each small group or individual to see their ideas merged with others’ ideas in a single, shared picture of the whole, resulting in a systemic view of the issue at hand.

Principle 2: Use Simple Rules

Understanding that a small set of rules or guidelines can generate complex and dynamic behavior and useful results leads to a design principle to use simple rules. A completely open process without structure or rules generates chaos, and too long or narrow a list of rules stifles a group. For example, as facilitators, our desire to ensure that a group has a rich, deep, and fruitful conversation can sometimes lead us to overstructure a session with too many ground rules, instructions, and expectations. In these instances, it is not uncommon for groups to be confused and raise many questions and for the session as a whole to fall flat.

Exhibit 14.1

World Café Process

The World Café uses multiple small groups (approximately six to nine people in each) that are arranged around the room. There are progressive rounds of conversation (usually three) of approximately fifteen to thirty minutes each, and everyone is in a new group for each round of discussion. To kick off each round, the facilitator poses a provocative question to engage the group in a discussion around the presenting systemic issue facing the larger group or organization. One person at each table is asked to be the recorder or note taker during the round. After the round, everyone except the recorder is asked to move to a different table. The recorder shares with the new group the key ideas that were generated by the first group. A new recorder emerges for each successive round. After all of the rounds, the larger group may engage in a discussion outlining the major themes that emerged. (For more information on the World Café process, see http://www.theworldcafe.com.)

Complexity science tells us as facilitators that our simple rules must provide minimum specifications and no more. Each simple rule should be just that: simple and a rule. Groups should be provided with a short list of rules that refer to how individuals should interact with each other. Too many detailed instructions will burden and stall the group.

Implementation of the rules should be tightly managed, but what the rules produce should be loosely held, allowing as much self-organization to emerge as possible. Think of simple rules as liberating structures for groups that allow individuals and groups to safely step up to the edge of chaos, where they can be most creative, adaptive, and productive. Exhibit 14.2 provides some examples of simple rules.

Simple rules guide the interaction between individuals and the system and are not focused on any one individual. The simplicity of the rules gives freedom to individuals to behave in adaptive, creative, surprising ways, which create complexity.

We have noticed that groups, organizations, and cultures have so many unwritten rules and norms that one way to liberate the natural performance of a complex system is to explicitly confirm or reshape these unwritten rules. We recently facilitated a meeting in which we invited small groups to discuss a set of issues. In this organization, an implicit rule was that small group conversations must generate a consensus view. We told the small groups that we did not expect them to provide a consensus view; instead, we were curious to hear what they naturally agreed on, any patterns in their views, and any differences of opinions they held. We noticed that the input of the small groups was particularly creative and powerful. At the end of the meeting, many participants shared with us how ecstatic they were to be freed from the expectation of consensus; they found it refreshing and believed the freedom to disagree encouraged them to explore ideas and views with more vigor and rigor.

Principle 3: Create an Edge

In nature, the edge of chaos is a called a verge—a rich mixture of ecosystems that happens when two distinct regions border each other and begin to overlap and interact. All living things in these regions are forced to engage in adaptation, cooperation, and competition that cause them to differentiate and create new forms. Costa Rica is an example of an area where two continents met and created a verge in which there is extraordinary biological diversity. Although it makes up less than three ten-thousandths of the earth’s landmass, Costa Rica is home to 5 percent of its species. How can we create this zone of creativity where ideas can emerge and develop in human systems?

Exhibit 14.2

Simple Rules for Groups

Brainstorming, dialogue, and Open Space are all examples of methodologies guided by simple rules. Consider the rules we use with each methodology:

Brainstorming

•Quantity counts at this stage, not quality.

•Encourage wild and exaggerated ideas.

•Postpone and withhold your judgment of ideas.

•Build on others’ ideas.

Dialogue

•Hold positions lightly; suspend judgment.

•Identify own assumptions; respect differences.

•Listen for shared meaning.

•Ask questions with the intention to gain insight and perspective.

Open Space (Owen, n.d.)

•Four Principles:

•Whoever comes are the right people.

•Whatever happens is the only thing that could have.

•Whenever it starts is the right time.

•When it is over it is over.

•One Law

•The Law of Two Feet—”If, during the course of the gathering any person finds him or herself in a situation where they are neither learning nor contributing, they can use their own two feet and go to some more productive place” (Owen, 1992, p. 72)

Most organizations and groups operate with multiple boundaries, including those between organizations, functions, roles, and areas of expertise. To create an edge, we need to find ways to engage people in and around these boundaries. We want to put participants in the zone where they grapple with the differences among or transitions between their familiar patterns.

One approach to creating an edge in a meeting is to work with the physical environment. Dixon (2000) writes about the hallways of learning, making the point that much of the juicy learning and knowledge exchange within an organization

takes place in the hall rather than within the formal structure of offices and meetings. Although most of us recognize the value of these informal exchanges, we have not thought consciously about how to make explicit use of the “hall” within the context of a meeting. Hewlett Packard convened a series of Work Innovation Network (WIN) meetings where they tried to do this. The goal of the WIN meetings was to bring people from different parts and levels of the company together to share learning. They provided the typical opportunities for people to make presentations and facilitate discussions about projects. But they also created what they called white space in the meeting by placing comfortable sofas, plants, and coffee tables in defined areas between the conference rooms where sessions took place. The configuration of the furniture was inviting and attracted people to sit down in small groups. This space enabled conversations among people who would not necessarily have encountered each other in the course of their work and conversations that were not defined by the formal agenda of the meeting.

Another approach to creating an edge is to introduce disruptive agents to the system. A product development group from a consumer products company convened an off-site meeting to develop new ideas for reaching customers. They had experienced frustration in previous meetings where it seemed that the ideas were limited to unimaginative extensions of current offerings. In the past, they had invited outside experts in different fields to make presentations that they hoped would trigger new thinking, but the strategy had not paid off as they hoped. The presenter’s new ideas had not become integrated with the discussions around projects. This time, they invited professionals from another field to come to the meeting as full participants rather than as outsiders. Their different perspectives, language, and frameworks were surprising and challenging and took the conversations in new directions.

One of the most effective ways facilitators can create an edge is to introduce challenges to the group’s standard mode of operating. This can be done by providing advice about who should be invited to a meeting, who could be added to the group, or where the meeting could be held. It can also be done by posing provocative questions that cause participants to stop and think before responding with their standard reply. These questions can put participants literally on edge, where they experience just enough discomfort to generate new ideas.

The following story describes one of Nedra Weinstein’s experiences in beginning to think about design using these principles.

ONE FACILITATOR’S EXPERIENCE

I participated in a learning group with the other authors of this chapter created to explore new and emerging trends within the organizational development field. The group was discussing complexity science and its application to facilitation at a time when I was designing an off-site meeting for a long-standing client.

The meeting was to focus on a historic and complex issue that affected a variety of stakeholders within the organization. The issue involved the core functions of planning, designing, constructing, and maintaining their key product. As happens frequently in organizations, the construction and maintenance functions felt they did not have sufficient input into the final product. The planners and designers, who were being pushed to complete their tasks more quickly and efficiently, felt they were receiving adequate feedback from their construction and maintenance colleagues.

I had been thinking of starting off the meeting with each of the functional groups meeting by themselves to discuss their perspective of the situation. I was planning on having each group present this information to the whole group, and then collectively they would identify common themes and issues. They would then form into smaller groups (consisting of different functional areas) for analysis and problem solving.

During the learning group discussion on complex adaptive systems, it occurred to me that some of the principles we were exploring could apply to my upcoming meeting, so I began to rethink my design.

Put the Whole System First

Rather than begin the meeting with each functional group focusing in on its views, I decided to use the World Café exercise. I divided the larger community into twelve smaller groups, each consisting of a mix of the functional stakeholders. Many of these individuals had never had a direct discussion on this issue with some of the people who were in their groups. Later in the day, I again divided the larger group into different mixed functional groups for further analysis and discussion on these issues. Each of these small groups was formed as a minisystem and incorporated stakeholders from all of the functional areas. After this meeting,

another small group of mixed functional stakeholders was created from this larger group to serve as a project team to further address the issue.

Use Simple Rules

For the World Café exercise (see Exhibit 14.3), I provided simple instructions and guidelines on what to do. At first, I was concerned that the World Café would seem too odd and chaotic to this client system. However, the simplicity of the instructions allowed the participants to move ahead with the next steps of the exercise even before I repeated the instructions for the next round. The quality of the World Café dialogue was enhanced by the initiative the groups took during the exercise. This helped them see the issues more systemically and recognize they had the power to make changes.

Exhibit 14.3

World Café Opening Exercise

When switching groups, sit with people whom you normally don’t work with. You will have 90 seconds to create these groups.

For each round, choose someone to be a recorder who will keep notes on the key themes and highlights of discussion. The recorder will stay in that group for the following round and will spend a few minutes reviewing his or her notes at the beginning of the round.

Discussion questions:

Round one: What are the core issues around this issue that have been playing themselves out over the years?

Round two: What are the dilemmas and paradoxes inherent in this process? How do you see what you are up against as being either a dilemma or a paradox?

Round three: What’s the part you play in the recurring story you have been describing and hearing about in the two earlier rounds? What is it that you, your team, or department does that keeps the issues in place and keeps this story continually being retold?

Create an Edge

I knew that this meeting had to be different from the many discussions that had occurred over the years to address this issue. As many of the participants had been in their jobs for several years, they were somewhat locked into their thinking. Not surprisingly, they had strong views about how others were the cause of the problems. I realized that for real progress to occur, they needed to shift collectively to a new frame or paradigm for the issue. I needed a relatively profound and simple mechanism to gently push them to the edge of chaos.

I used an exercise called “Circles in the Air” (described in Exhibit 14.4), designed to explore the premise that our particular perspective in a system colors our view of that system. In addition, it is an exercise that can be done with a large group of people (in this case, ninety participants). The experience of the exercise suggests that by changing our vantage point mentally or physically, we may discover new insights and new leverage points.

The majority of the participants understood the intent of the exercise. In fact, during the meeting, when there was a need to get out of one perspective and into another, I would twirl my finger to symbolically suggest the need to change perspective. At various points in the meeting, participants twirled their fingers to invite others to consider the point of view that was being presented rather than to keep advocating their point.

In addition to this exercise, I knew that the group needed to have a very different kind of conversation with each other—one in which they were seeing both the systems view and their own. I thought the key to moving them there was the use of provocative questions in the World Café exercise, with each question adding an increased level of complexity. It was not until the session was concluded, and we debriefed it, that I knew I had hit the jackpot with these questions. During the debriefing, participants commented that they had not realized the similarity of their concerns and frustrations around this issue. When asked if they had learned anything new from the discussion, one man stood up. He was seen by the group as having strong opinions and unlikely to concede to others. He said he had not realized how he and his division had been contributing to the problem. The larger community applauded.

Exhibit 14.4

Circles in the Air Exercise

Instructions

Step 1: Ask everyone to pick up a pen or pencil.

Step 2: Have them hold the pen straight up in the air, and pretend to draw a circle on the ceiling in a clock-wise direction. Tell them to keep drawing the circle and looking up.

Step 3: Say, “Now slowly continue to draw the circle clockwise, and bring the pen down a few inches at a time until it is in front of your face. Continue to circle the pen, and slowly bring it down until you are looking down on top of it. Continue to draw the circle while looking down on it.”

Step 4: Ask the group, “What direction is the pen moving now?”(It will be a counterclockwise direction at this point.)

You will find that some people lose the integrity of the circle as they bring their pens down, swishing their hands back and forth in a straight line. If you notice this, suggest that the person start over and encourage him or her to practice “drawing” a round circle on the ceiling before moving the pen down.

Debrief

The first question to ask is, “So what happened?” Initial responses tend to range from the insightful (“What changed is my perspective”) to the self-aware and humorous. After people have had a chance to try it again, most of them will see that what changed as they brought the pen down was not the direction of the pen but their perspective or vantage point.

Source: Adapted from The Systems Thinking Playbook (Sweeney and Meadows, 2001), which contains thirty exercises like “Circles.” Copies may be obtained by contacting Dennis Meadows at latailleded@aol.com.

The mood of the large group shifted from one of resignation to a sense of hope. During the small group problem-solving sessions during the afternoon, many individuals expressed a cautious sense of optimism that perhaps these issues could be resolved.

Results: What Has Happened Since

Approximately two weeks after this meeting, a project team was formed. It met over the course of the next five months, building on the data generated at the kickoff meeting. One project team member said it was the