Schuman S. - The IAF Handbook of Group Facilitation (2005)(en)

A review of the current literature on dialogue reveals a multitude of practices, methods, and definitions with a confusing range of characteristics, terms, and models. In fact, a Google search “what is dialogue” on April 1, 2004, returned over eight hundred responses. In response to the profusion of practices, techniques, and definitions, it has been suggested that “none of these [dialogue] approaches can lay claim to being the ‘correct’ view, it is indeed possible to distinguish the various views, and to clarify what is intended by each” (Bohm, 2003, p. vii). The following are representative examples of models or terms describing dialogue and deliberation: “civic engagement, public participation, study circles, community conversations, public discourse, honest conversations, deliberative discourse, and community cafes. Some of these are ‘brands’ that are developed and promoted by particular organizations, and some are terms that are used within certain constituencies” (Heierbacher and Fluke, 2001/2002).

Collective Inquiry

Among the models of dialogue that Zuniga and Nagda (2004) have identified is the Collective Inquiry Model, which emerged from the highly influential work of Bohm. “Collective inquiry models posit that suspending judgments and assumptions is essential to finding shared meaning among dialogue participants. The Collective Inquiry Model focuses on nurturing participants’ abilities to engage in collective thinking and inquiry for the development of synergistic and meaningful relationships” (Zuniga and Nagda, 2004, p. 307). Another example of the Collective Inquiry Model is the research and applications on organizational learning by William Isaacs and his colleagues at the Dialogue Project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Organizations and communities throughout the United States have put this model into service (Zuniga and Nagda, 2004). A facilitator using the Collective Inquiry Model will move through several stages (Zuniga and Nagda, 2004):

1.Establish an environment for dialogue. Clarify the purpose of the dialogue. Build a container for dialogue for safety and trust issues to emerge. Develop group consensus on purpose, mission, and structure.

2.Develop a common base of knowledge—conceptual and personal. Explore beliefs and assumptions by sharing information leading to public suspension of judgments. Engage in dialogue about personal, work-related, or general topics.

Exhibit 13.1

Distinguishing Debate from Dialogue

Source: Excerpted and adapted from “Distinguishing Debate from Dialogue: A Table.” Reprinted with permission from the Public Conversations Project (1992).

3.Explore questions, issues, or conflict. Focus the dialogue on one or more questions, issues, or specific conflicts, and deepen the dialogue. Increase suspension of judgment (when people judge, stereotype, and characterize) and trust in the dialogue process while inquiry and creativity flow in the container. Engage in dialogue about personal, work-related, or general topics.

4.Move from dialogue to action. Assess experiences, and engage in dialogue about transferring learning and skills to daily life.

Under the Collective Inquiry Model, “the goal of dialogue is to open new ground by establishing a ‘container’ or ‘field’ for inquiry: a setting where people can become more aware of the context around their experience, and of the processes of thought and feeling that created that experience” (Senge and others, 1994, p. 353). Virginia M. Swain, in her work through the Institute for Global Leadership, suggests that dialogue occurs within the confines of a container or holding environment that is “a metaphoric structure, created by participants, to share resources and power, withdraw projections of the unconscious, and dissipate emotional reactions in such a way that the outcome of the conversation is owned by everyone present” (Swain, 2001). “A container can be understood as the sum of the collective assumptions, shared intentions, and beliefs of the group” (Senge and others, 1994, p. 360). In addition, Senge and others describe different phases of the container as the dialogue moves through different stages.

DESIGNING THE DIALOGUE: AN EXAMPLE

You have been asked by the CEO of a national manufacturer of children’s clothing to design and facilitate a dialogue on diversity for a small group of fifteen employees. All levels of the organization chart are represented in this sample. They have accepted an invitation to take part in a one-day dialogue.

The CEO recognizes the strength of a diverse workplace. Under her leadership, the corporation has cultivated an image of sensitivity to recruiting and hiring a diverse workforce. The company has been able to attract minority employees; however, they have been unable to retain and promote these individuals despite commitment to diversity from top management. The turnover of minority employees is four times that of nonminorities. Exit interviews reveal that the educational diversity programming, tracking, and in-house training have failed to create an organizational culture where all employees have embraced cultural differences and workplace programs or understand the benefits of learning and working with a diverse community.

You met separately with the CEO and the entire group of fifteen individuals. Before accepting this assignment, you made a determination if this situation was appropriate for dialogue. Threshold design questions for convening a dialogue were asked (Study Circles Resource Center 2001):

•What brings us together? “Create a dialogue to foster shared meaning. People work better together and achieve more when they are aligned around a shared purpose, value and goals. Shared meaning leads to cooperative action, mutual understanding and respect” (Whitney, Cooperrider, Trosten-Bloom, and Kaplin, 2002, p. 2).

•Why is this issue important? Business, social, and moral imperatives: “Diversity initiatives can improve the quality of your organization’s workforce and can be the catalyst for a better return on investment in human capital . . . [and] to capitalize on new markets” (Society for Human Resource Management, 2004).

•How would dialogue help? “Increased Creativity. . . . Customer bases are becoming even more diverse than the workforce. . . . Flexibility ensures survival. . . . Diversity initiatives and diversity results will

attract the best and the brightest employees to a company” (Society

for Human Resource Management, 2004).

•Is this topic compelling to many different kinds of people? All participants have personal, political, and professional stakes in the outcome.

When naming and framing the issues, consider these additional questions:

•Is the issue a concern, challenge, opportunity, or recurring problem that is becoming more troublesome (Scott, 2002)? Yes. It is likely to continue in this manner.

•Why is it significant? What’s at stake? How does this affect dollars, income, people, products, services, customers, and family (Scott, 2002)?

The answers to the first five questions are all applicable to this question.

DIALOGUE PROCESSES: GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AND PROTOCOLS

There is not an exact formula for facilitating dialogue. A Statement of Values and Code of Ethics (2002) has been adopted by the International Association of Facilitators (IAF). (See Chapter Thirty.) And the IAF core facilitation competencies required for skillful facilitation of meetings and workshops provide guidance. (See Chapter Twenty-Six.) Nevertheless, the context and nature of the dialogue coupled with the individuality and personal style of the facilitator make each dialogue one of a kind.

The governing principles for dialogue success are simple and begin with building and preserving a vessel where the integrity of group process will perform without disturbance (Davis, 2003). Dialogue participants then “become the sounding boards, the graveyards, and the launching platforms of our thoughts . . . [and] dialoguing is crucial to test our thoughts” (Kirby, Goodpaster, and Levin, 2003, p. 9). From that point in dialogue, a facilitator can move participants through dialogic processes, described in the diversity vignette, and guide them to listen, appreciate one another’s positions, and try to reach some common understanding. The techniques and protocols for leading a dialogue differ from model to model and facilitator to facilitator.

Who Is Present at the Dialogue?

People are extended invitations to participate in a dialogue; however, it is their choice whether to join. All participants are granted an opportunity to speak once the invitation is accepted and the dialogue begins. A list of invitees should include as many stakeholders as possible to ensure a representative group. A more productive and complete dialogue occurs when all necessary parties are present to contribute. At the time of the dialogue, if not raised by participants, the facilitator should identify stakeholders essential to the topic who are not in the room. Possible perspectives of the unavailable individuals should be questioned and revealed to the group.

A facilitator and sometimes a cofacilitator lead the dialogue. There is a discipline necessary to design and lead a dialogue. Anyone can learn the dialogue process, but the techniques to design and lead a dialogue properly require practice, training and experience.

If possible, a competent individual is selected and attends the dialogue as a recorder to capture information in real time on an easel pad. If a recorder is unavailable, this role can be filled by the facilitator or cofacilitator. Recording content can keep the group on task and provide a contemporaneous record of what has transpired. It can provide visual feedback that balanced views are presented and reference materials for debriefing or future dialogues. It can also be shared with stakeholders who did not attend the dialogue.

Basic Structure of Dialogue

There is no verbatim script in dialogue. It is important to be flexible in approach and facilitation. The process is adaptable to nearly all circumstance with proper investigation, analysis, and design. Learning and discovery can occur when the process includes participants’ respect, there is deep listening, assumptions are questioned, and judgment is suspended. Dialogue is not recommended where participants will not act in good faith, have not accepted the invitation, or are compelled to attend. Remember to honor the adage to trust the process.

Framework and Dialogic Functions

According to Edwards (2002), managing an on-line dialogue about public issues falls within a framework of three functions, which I view as equally applicable

to the design and facilitation of face-to-face dialogues: “The strategic function: establishing the boundaries of the discussion and embedding it in the political and organizational environment; the conditioning function: taking care of conditions and provisions for the discussion (for example, obtaining participants, seating arrangements, tables, chairs, coffee and bagels); and the process function: managing the discussion (social) process as a collective purposeful activity” (p. 5). It is incumbent on the facilitator to include each of these elements in the dialogue design plan and to monitor carefully and modify these processes, as dictated by the circumstances.

Process Leadership

As facilitators, we support through process leadership both the group’s social and cognitive processes while respecting the group’s need to understand and learn from the problem-solving process (Schuman, 1996). When we actively listen, respect, and value the group, our behavior serves as a model that we wish the group to emulate. At the same time, facilitators must recognize that people communicate in a multiprocess way verbally and nonverbally. Reading the subtext of these nonverbal messages requires attention and knowledge. These nonverbal elements include gestures, facial expressions, and defensive postures (Madonik, 2001; Nierenberg and Calero, 2003). These nonverbal actions are meters of our states of mind and are real-time perceptions of the status of the dialogue. Facilitators should be cognizant of the importance of process leadership and develop competences for managing process as well as understanding, analyzing, and using nonverbal communication, including sensitivity to subtle messages.

Ground Rules

The use of ground rules, guidelines, or agreement assists the facilitator in keeping a dialogue from becoming an adversarial debate. This approach also allows the introduction of an agenda that enables the balancing time and content of the dialogue while maintaining the energy of the group members. Establishing norms for individual and group behavior supports maximum contributions and yields a receptive and respectful dialogue. Positive relationships and information exchange spring from a safe setting in which to explore difficult subjects and relationships (Pyser and Figallo, 2004).

Critical Thinking

A facilitator needs to search for understanding and formulate and ask interrelated questions at fitting times. During dialogue, it is essential that the facilitator use critical thinking skills to simultaneously evaluate, listen, and process the event. “The ideal critical thinker is habitually inquisitive, well-informed, trustful of reason, open-minded, flexible, fair-minded in evaluation, honest in facing personal biases, prudent in making judgments, willing to reconsider, clear about issues, orderly in complex matters, diligent in seeking relevant information, reasonable in the selection of criteria, focused in inquiry, and persistent in seeing results which are as precise as the subject and the circumstances of inquiry permit” (Aretz, Bolen, and Devereux, 1997).

Framing and Asking Questions

The ability to frame and ask questions of participants is an essential facilitator skill for beginning and sustaining a dialogue (see Exhibit 13.2). When properly phrased, well-crafted questions can engage participants, stimulate thoughtful reflection, and energize conversation through sharing of personal and valuable insights. Questions are one of the essential elements of a productive and balanced dialogue. Facilitators should continue to practice and hone the skill of developing and posing questions. The quality and success of the dialogue will turn in large part on this facilitator skill.

Exhibit 13.2

Framing and Asking Dialogue Questions

Prepare and write out your questions. Trust fate, and fly by the seat of your pants.