6.Metonymy. Association. Kinds of metonymy. The metonymic usage of words. Common and different features between metaphor and metonymy.

Metonymy. The transposition of a name (or identification of two things) on the basis of connection, contiguity. Thus, metonymy is also an absurd identification (a “lie”) like metaphor, but here the two things are identified on the basis not of similarity but of logical connection. 

Here is a short quote from Charles Dickens’s novel ^ Nicholas Nickleby “ – [I am looking for] Mrs Nickleby. – said Ralph.

– It’s the second floor, Hannah – said the same voice. – … Is the second floor at

home? Somebody went out just now, but I think it was the attic – replied the girl.”  In this example, we use the name of the place the place instead of its inhabitant. Of course “the second floor” cannot stay at home or go out, it is the occupant of the second-floor flat that the characters are talking about. The relationship (the ground for the identification) is a spatial relationship between the room and its occupant. The same metonymical structure works in phrases like “the White House said”, “according to Washington”, “the Kremlin approves of the negotiations”, “Downing Street has issued an official statement”, etc. It is a metonymy to say that “the United States and Great Britain have sent troops to Iraq”. 

Because a logical (spatial, temporal, causal) connection already exists between the two identified things, metonymy is usually not as surprising as metaphor (the surprise effect of metaphors is the result of the distance between tenor and vehicle).  Because metonymy is not based on similarity, thus, the ground of the identification is not a separate thing or quality (as “brightness” or “having human lips”), we don’t speak of tenor, vehicle and ground in the case of metonymies. Instead, the analysis of metonymy involves the identification of the type of connection between the two things. 

There are four major types of metonymy: 

spatial (the connection is that of space), e.g. the Dickens quote, or “the ship never sleeps” temporal (the connection is that of time), e.g. “this is a cruel century” material (e.g. saying “gold” instead of money, or “steel” instead of “sword”) causal (the connection is that of cause and effect), e.g. “this woman will be your death”

7.Synonyms. Groups of synonyms. Sources of synonyms.

A synonym – is a word of similar or identical meaning to one or more words in the same language. All languages contain synonyms but in English they exist in superabundance.

They’re no two absolutely identical words because connotations, ways of usage, frequency of an occurrence are different.

Senses of synonyms are identical in respect of central semantic trades but differ in respect of minor semantic trades.

Classification:

1. Total synonyms (Absolute) are very rare in the language. They are mostly different names for one and the same plant, animal, disease etc. (absolute) which can replace each other in any given context

--Ex.: the flu :: grippe; сiм’я ::родина; відсоток :: процент.