- •1. TABLE OF CONTENTS
- •2. BASIC MANUFACTURING
- •2.1 INTRODUCTION
- •2.2 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •3. MANUFACTURING COST ESTIMATING
- •3.1 COSTS ESTIMATES
- •3.2 COGS (COST OF GOODS SOLD)
- •3.3 VALUE ENGINEERING
- •3.4 REFERENCES
- •4. BASIC CUTTING TOOLS
- •4.1 CUTTING SPEEDS, FEEDS, TOOLS AND TIMES
- •4.2 HIGH SPEED MACHINING
- •4.3 REFERENCES
- •5. CUTTING THEORY
- •5.1 CHIP FORMATION
- •5.2 THE MECHANISM OF CUTTING
- •5.2.1 Force Calculations
- •5.2.1.1 - Force Calculations
- •5.2.1.2 - Merchant’s Force Circle With Drafting (Optional)
- •5.3 POWER CONSUMED IN CUTTING
- •5.4 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
- •5.5 TEMPERATURES IN CUTTING
- •5.6 TOOL WEAR
- •5.7 CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS
- •5.7.1 A Short List of Tool Materials
- •5.8 TOOL LIFE
- •5.8.1 The Economics of Metal Cutting
- •5.9 REFERENCES
- •5.10 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •6. SAWS
- •6.1 SPEEDS AND FEEDS
- •6.2 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •7. DRILLING
- •7.1 TYPES OF DRILL PRESSES
- •7.2 TYPICAL DRILL PRESS OPERATIONS
- •7.3 TYPICAL DRILL BITS
- •7.3.1 Reamers
- •7.3.2 Boring
- •7.3.3 Taps
- •7.4 DRILLING PROCESS PARAMETERS
- •7.4.1 The mrr For Drilling
- •7.5 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •8. LATHES
- •8.1 INTRODUCTION
- •8.2 OPERATIONS ON A LATHE
- •8.2.1 Machine tools
- •8.2.1.1 - Production Machines
- •8.3 LATHE TOOLBITS
- •8.3.1 Thread Cutting On A Lathe
- •8.3.2 Cutting Tapers
- •8.3.3 Turning Tapers on Lathes
- •8.4 FEEDS AND SPEEDS
- •8.4.1 The mrr for Turning
- •8.4.2 Process Planning for Turning
- •8.5 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •9. MILLING
- •9.1 INTRODUCTION
- •9.1.1 Types of Milling Operations
- •9.1.1.1 - Arbor Milling
- •9.1.2 Milling Cutters
- •9.1.3 Milling Cutting Mechanism
- •9.1.3.1 - Up-Cut Milling
- •9.1.3.2 - Down-Cut Milling
- •9.2 FEEDS AND SPEEDS
- •9.2.1 The mrr for Milling
- •9.2.2 Process Planning for Prismatic Parts
- •9.2.3 Indexing
- •9.3 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •10. GRINDING
- •10.1 OPERATIONS
- •10.2 MACHINE TYPES
- •10.2.1 Surface
- •10.2.2 Center
- •10.2.3 Centerless
- •10.2.4 Internal
- •10.3 GRINDING WHEELS
- •10.3.1 Operation Parameters
- •10.4 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •11. SURFACES
- •11.1 MEASURES OF ROUGHNESS
- •11.2 METHODS OF MEASURING SURFACE ROUGHNESS
- •11.2.1 Observation Methods
- •11.2.2 Stylus Equipment
- •11.2.3 Specifications on Drawings
- •11.3 OTHER SYSTEMS
- •11.4 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •11.4.0.1 - Roundness Testing
- •11.4.0.1.1 - Intrinsic Roundness Testing
- •11.4.0.1.2 - Extrinsic Roundness Testing
- •11.4.0.1.3 - Practice Problems
- •11.5 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •35. METROLOGY
- •35.1 INTRODUCTION
- •35.1.1 The Role of Metrology
- •35.2 DEFINITIONS
- •35.3 STANDARDS
- •35.3.1 Scales
- •35.3.2 Calipers
- •35.3.3 Transfer Gauges
- •35.4 INSTRUMENTS
- •35.4.1 Vernier Scales
- •35.4.2 Micrometer Scales
- •35.4.2.1 - The Principle of Magnification
- •35.4.2.2 - The Principle of Alignment
- •35.4.3 Dial Indicators
- •35.4.4 The Tool Makers Microscope
- •35.4.5 Metrology Summary
- •35.5 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •35.5.0.1 - Interferometry (REWORK)
- •35.5.0.1.1 - Light Waves and Interference
- •35.5.0.1.2 - Optical Flats
- •35.5.0.1.3 - Interpreting Interference Patterns
- •35.5.0.1.4 - Types of Interferometers
- •35.5.0.2 - Laser Measurements of Relative Distance
- •35.5.0.2.1 - Practice Problems
- •35.6 GAUGE BLOCKS
- •35.6.1 Manufacturing Gauge Blocks
- •35.6.2 Compensating for Temperature Variations
- •35.6.2.1 - References
- •35.6.3 Testing For Known Dimensions With Standards
- •35.6.3.1 - References
- •35.6.4 Odd Topics
- •35.6.5 Practice Problems
- •35.6.6 Limit (GO & NO GO) Gauges
- •35.6.6.1 - Basic Concepts
- •35.6.6.2 - GO & NO GO Gauges Using Gauge Blocks
- •35.6.6.3 - Taylor’s Theory for Limit Gauge Design
- •35.6.6.4.1 - Sample Problems
- •35.6.7 Sine Bars
- •35.6.7.1 - Sine Bar Limitations
- •35.6.7.1.1 - Practice Problems
- •35.6.8 Comparators
- •35.6.8.1 - Mechanical Comparators
- •35.6.8.2 - Mechanical and Optical Comparators
- •35.6.8.3 - Optical Comparators
- •35.6.8.4 - Pneumatic Comparators
- •35.6.9 Autocollimators
- •35.6.10 Level Gauges
- •35.6.10.1 - Clinometer
- •35.6.10.2 - The Brookes Level Comparator
- •35.6.11 The Angle Dekkor
- •35.7 MEASURING APARATUS
- •35.7.1 Reference Planes
- •35.7.1.1 - Granite Surface Plates
- •35.7.1.2 - Cast Iron Surface Plates
- •35.7.2 Squares
- •35.7.2.1 - Coordinate Measureing Machines
- •35.7.2.2 - Practice Problems
- •AM:35.7.3 Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMM)
- •36. ASSEMBLY
- •36.1 THE BASICS OF FITS
- •36.1.1 Clearance Fits
- •36.1.2 Transitional Fits
- •36.1.3 Interference Fits
- •36.2 C.S.A. B97-1 1963 LIMITS AND FITS(REWORK)
- •36.3 CSA MODIFIED FITS
- •36.4 CSA LIMITS AND FITS
- •36.5 THE I.S.O. SYSTEM
- •36.6 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •42. WELDING/SOLDERING/BRAZING
- •42.1 ADHESIVE BONDING
- •42.2 ARC WELDING
- •42.3 GAS WELDING
- •42.4 SOLDERING AND BRAZING
- •42.5 TITANIUM WELDING
- •42.5.1 Practice Problems
- •42.6 PLASTIC WELDING
- •42.7 EXPLOSIVE WELDING
- •42.7.1 Practice Problems
- •43. AESTHETIC FINISHING
- •43.1 CLEANING AND DEGREASING
- •43.2 PAINTING
- •43.2.1 Powder Coating
- •43.3 COATINGS
- •43.4 MARKING
- •43.4.1 Laser Marking
- •43.5 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •44. METALLURGICAL TREATMENTS
- •44.1 HEAT TREATING
- •44.2 ION NITRIDING
- •44.3 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •45. CASTING
- •45.1 SAND CASTING
- •45.1.1 Molds
- •45.1.2 Sands
- •45.2 SINGLE USE MOLD TECHNIQUES
- •45.2.1 Shell Mold Casting
- •45.2.2 Lost Foam Casting (Expandable Pattern)
- •45.2.3 Plaster Mold Casting
- •45.2.4 Ceramic Mold Casting
- •45.2.5 Investment Casting
- •45.3 MULTIPLE USE MOLD TECHNIQUES
- •45.3.1 Vacuum Casting
- •45.3.2 Permanent Mold Casting
- •45.3.2.1 - Slush Casting
- •45.3.2.2 - Pressure Casting
- •45.3.2.3 - Die Casting
- •45.3.3 Centrifugal Casting
- •45.3.4 Casting/Forming Combinations
- •45.3.4.1 - Squeeze Casting
- •45.3.4.2 - Semisolid Metal Forming
- •45.3.5 Single Crystal Casting
- •45.4 OTHER TOPICS
- •45.4.1 Furnaces
- •45.4.2 Inspection of Casting
- •45.5 Design of Castings
- •45.6 REFERENECES
- •45.7 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •46. MOLDING
- •46.1 REACTION INJECTION MOLDING (RIM)
- •46.1.1 References
- •46.2 INJECTION MOLDING
- •46.2.1 Hydraulic Pumps/Systems
- •46.2.2 Molds
- •46.2.3 Materials
- •46.2.4 Glossary
- •46.3 EXTRUSION
- •46.4 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •47. ROLLING AND BENDING
- •47.1 BASIC THEORY
- •47.2 SHEET ROLLING
- •47.3 SHAPE ROLLING
- •47.4 BENDING
- •48. SHEET METAL FABRICATION
- •48.1 SHEET METAL PROPERTIES
- •48.2 SHEARING
- •48.2.1 Progressive and Transfer Dies
- •48.2.2 DRAWING
- •48.3 DEEP DRAWING
- •48.4 SPINNING
- •48.5 MAGNETIC PULSE FORMING
- •48.6 HYDROFORMING
- •48.7 SUPERPLASTIC FORMING
- •48.7.1 Diffusion Bonding
- •48.8 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •49. FORGING (to be expanded)
- •49.1 PROCESSES
- •49.1.1 Open-Die
- •49.1.2 Impression/Closed Die
- •49.1.3 Heading
- •49.1.4 Rotary Swaging
- •50. EXTRUSION AND DRAWING
- •50.1 DIE EXTRUSION
- •50.1.1 Hot Extrusion
- •50.1.2 Cold Extrusion
- •50.2 HYDROSTATIC EXTRUSION
- •50.3 DRAWING
- •50.4 EQUIPMENT
- •50.5 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •51. ELECTROFORMING
- •51.1 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •52. COMPOSITE MANUFACTURING
- •52.1 FIBER REINFORCED PLASTICS (FRP)
- •52.2 COMPOSITE MANUFACTURING
- •52.2.1 Manual Layup
- •52.2.2 Automated Tape Lamination
- •52.2.3 Cutting of Composites
- •52.2.4 Vacuum Bags
- •52.2.5 Autoclaves
- •52.2.6 Filament Winding
- •52.2.7 Pultrusion
- •52.2.8 Resin-Transfer Molding (RTM)
- •52.2.9 GENERAL INFORMATION
- •52.2.10 REFERENCES
- •52.2.11 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •53. POWDERED METALLURGY
- •53.1 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •54. ABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM)
- •54.1 REFERENCES
- •54.2 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •55. HIGH PRESSURE JET CUTTING
- •56. ABRASIVE WATERJET CUTTING (AWJ)
- •57. ULTRA SONIC MACHINING (USM)
- •57.1 REFERENCES
- •57.1.1 General Questions
- •58. ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)
- •58.1 WIRE EDM
- •58.2 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •58.3 REFERENCES
- •59. ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM)
- •59.1 REFERENCES
- •59.2 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •60. ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING
- •60.1 REFERENCES
- •60.2 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •61. ION IMPLANTATION
- •61.1 THIN LAYER DEPOSITION
- •61.2 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •62. ELECTROSTATIC SPRAYING
- •62.1 ELECTROSTATIC ATOMIZATION METHOD
- •62.2 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •63. AIR-PLASMA CUTTING
- •63.1 REFERENCES
- •63.2 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •64. LASER CUTTING
- •64.1 LASERS
- •64.1.1 References
- •64.2 LASER CUTTING
- •64.2.1 References
- •64.3 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •65. RAPID PROTOTYPING
- •65.1 STL FILE FORMAT
- •65.2 STEREOLITHOGRAPHY
- •65.2.1 Supports
- •65.2.2 Processing
- •65.2.3 References
- •65.3 BONDED POWDERS
- •65.4 SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING (SLS)
- •65.5 SOLID GROUND CURING (SGC)
- •65.6 FUSED DEPOSITION MODELLING (FDM)
- •65.7 LAMINATE OBJECT MODELING (LOM)
- •65.8 DIRECT SHELL PRODUCTION CASTING (DSPC)
- •65.9 BALLISTIC PARTICLE MANUFACTURING (BPM)
- •65.9.1 Sanders Prototype
- •65.9.2 Design Controlled Automated Fabrication (DESCAF)
- •65.10 COMPARISONS
- •65.10.1 References
- •65.11 AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
- •65.12 REFERENCES
- •65.13 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •66. PROCESS PLANNING
- •66.1 TECHNOLOGY DRIVEN FEATURES
- •66.2 MOST SIGNIFICANT FEATURE FIRST
- •66.3 DATABASE METHODS
- •66.4 MANUFACTURING VOLUMES
- •66.5 STANDARD PARTS
- •66.6 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
- •66.6.1 Case Study Problems
- •66.6.1.1 - Case 1
- •66.7 REFERENCES
page 86
7.Cut any special feature now.
8.Do finish cuts on outside and inside.
9.Reverse the part in the chuck and face off the material to size. Protect the work by placing a piece of soft metal between it and the chuck.
8.5 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. Given that a tapered piece is to be made with the tailstock offset method, determine the taper per foot, and offset required if, you are starting with a bar of stock that is 8” long, and 1.125” in diameter, and the final taper is to be 6” long and 1” at the small end.
(ans. tpf = 0.25”, offset = 0.0833”)
2.Given the 1/2-12 UNC thread that is to be cut on the lathe,
a)What should the gear ratio between the machine spindle and the lead screw be if the lead screw is 5 t.p.i.?
b)What should the in-feed be for each pass?
3.Which of the following statements about lathe toolbits is correct?
a)a small nose radius will result in a smoother surface.
b)small relief angles will always increase friction.
c)large rake angles will decrease cutting forces.
d)none of the above.
(ans. c)
4.Which of the statements about lathes below is most correct?
a)jawed chucks hold only standard sizes of pieces.
b)mandrels hold work pieces from the outside.
c)the chasing dial is used for measuring fine cuts.
d)lead screws and feed rods are lathe parts
(ans. d)
5. When turning between centres a dog is required; what is a dog in this context?
(ans. it holds the work piece so that it can be driven with a face plate mounted on the lathe spindle)
6. A centre gauge (fish tail gauge) is employed in thread cutting. Suggest two uses for the gauge.
(ans. aligning a cutting tool for threads, )
page 87
7. Given an external 9/16-12-UNC thread, determined which tools would be used.
(ans. a turning tool to turn the outside diameter of 9/16”+1/12”, UNC tool to turn thread)
8.If we are rough cutting a 5” diameter bar of bronze on a lathe with a HSS tool,
a)what speed and feed should be used?
b)if the cut is 12” long, and will be made in two passes, how long will the operation take?
c)if the setup time is 5 minutes, and the machine rate is $50/hr., what will the cost of the operation be?
Using the lookup tables in the notes we pick a surface cutting speed and feed.
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D = 5in |
L = 12in |
R = 50$/hr |
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Finish |
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ft |
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ft |
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CS = 90min--------- |
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CS = 100min |
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f = |
0.015--------------------------------+ 0.025 -------in |
= 0.02 |
-------in |
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f = 0.003--------------------------------+ 0.010 -------in |
= 0.0065 |
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2 |
rev |
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rev |
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rpm = |
12-------------CS |
= 68 |
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rpm = 12-------------CS = 76 |
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D |
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L |
f = 17.39min |
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T = |
rpm-----------------× |
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T = rpm-----------------× |
f |
= 24.29min |
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2( 8.82) |
+ 5 |
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2( 24.29) |
+ 5 |
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C = T × |
R = |
---------------------------60 |
50 = 18.71 |
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C = T × R = |
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50 = 44.65 |
$ |
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9.List the basic steps for setting up a lathe to cut a thread on a bar of stock, assume the stock is mounted between centres already.
(ans. see thread cutting section)
10.If a taper of 1mm in 10mm is to be cut, what will the offset distance be for a 10cm part?
11.Calculate the machine tool spindle speeds for the following,
a)turning on a lathe with a high speed steel tool in mild steel work with a diameter of 2.75”. The cutting speeds is 100 ft./min.
12.We have been given a mild steel bar that is to be turned on a lathe. It has a diameter of 14” and a length of 28”. We have been asked to make two rough passes, and one finishing pass. The tool we have selected is Carbide. When doing rough cuts we use a feed of 0.007”/rev., and for finishing cuts we use a feed of 0.004”/rev. How long will this operation take?
page 88
13.Which of the following statements about lathe toolbits is correct?
a)a small nose radius will result in a smoother surface.
b)small relief angles will always increase friction.
c)large rake angles will decrease cutting forces.
d)none of the above.
ans. C or D
14.Which of the statements about lathes below is most correct?
a)jawed chucks hold only standard sizes of pieces.
b)collets hold work pieces from the outside.
c)the chasing dial is used for measuring fine cuts.
d)lead screws and indexers are lathe parts
ans. B
15.Given the non-standard 3/8-19 UNC thread that is to be cut on the lathe,
a)What should the gear ratio between the machine spindle and the lead screw be if the lead screw is 4 t.p.i.?
b)What should the in-feed be for each pass?
ans. a) 4/19, b) 0.039
16. Develop a rough process plan for the part below by clearly listing operation steps in the correct sequence. Feeds, speeds, times and costs are not needed at this time.
page 89
3.75”
1.25” |
1.00” |
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1.25”
0.75” |
3” tpf |
1.75” |
1/16” slot x 1/16” |
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1/8” slot X 1/16” below taper
Operation Operation
Number Description
0010 Cut off 2” dia. Stock to 4”
0020 |
Mount in lathe chuck, face and centre drill |
ans.
Operation |
Operation |
Number |
Description (Note excess details given for beginners) |
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0010 |
Cut off 2” dia. Stock to 4” |
0020 |
Mount in lathe chuck, face and center drill to 3.75” length |
0030 |
Mount between centers |
0040 |
Turn entire length to 1.75” dia. |
0050 |
Cut slot with form tool 1” from end to 1/16” depth |
0060 |
Turn one end down to 1.25”dia. for 15/16” |
0070 |
Reverse part in centers (cover finished end with soft metal) |
0080 |
Cut 1/8” by 1/16” slot |
0090 |
Turn taper with taper turning attachment |
0100 |
Return tailstock to normal position |
0110 |
Deburr and inspect |
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*Note: the implied tolerances +/- 0.005 would not require cooling |
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17. The aluminum component below is to be turned on a lathe using a HSS tool. Develop a process plan, including offset for the taper, speeds, feeds, etc. Put the process plan in a list similar to the format shown. Assume a cost of $45.00/hr. for the lathe, and $25.00/hr. for all other
page 90
pieces of equipment. State all assumption clearly, and justify numbers in the process plan with calculations or references.
3.75”
1.25” |
1.00” |
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1.25”
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3” tpf |
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0.75” |
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1.75” |
1/16” slot x 1/16” |
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1/8” slot X 1/16” below taper |
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0010 |
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Cut off Stock to 4” |
6 min. |
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$5.00 |
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0020 |
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Mount in lathe chuck, face and centre drill |
12 min. |
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18.On a lathe toolbit what are the functions of, a) the side relief angle, b) end relief angle, c) back rake, d) side rake angle, nose radius.
19.What applications are large positive rake angles for? negative rake angles?
20.What is the difference between end and face milling?
21.What RPM should be used to rough cut a cast iron piece with a 3” dia. with a high speed steel tool. What RPM should be used for a similar workpiece of plain carbon steel? What RPM should be used for the two materials if finishing cuts are being made?
22.Calculate the time required to machine a 2” dia. copper rod that is to be turned for a length of 10”.
23.What are rough and finish turning operations used for?
24.What are two methods for cutting stepped shoulders on a lathe?
25.Explain the difference between self holding and steep tapers using the coefficient of friction.
26.Find the tpf and tailstock offset for tapers on the following work.
page 91
a) D=1.5”, d=1.25”, TL=4”, OL=8”
27.convert a metric taper of 1:50 to a tpf. Convert a 1”tpf to metric.
28.Define the terms, fit, tolerance, allowance, limits, clearance, press fit, precision.
29.For a 1”-8-NC thread find the minimum and maximum diameters and minimum width of the toolbit point.
30.Describe the differences in speeds, feeds and depths of cuts for roughing and finishing cuts.
31.What types of chips are desirable when setting up automated cutting processes?
32.Compare the time to cut a work piece using a high speed steel tool and a carbide tool. The 4” dia. aluminum work is to be rough turned over a length of 14”.
33.What operations can be performed on a lathe?
34.How are the parameters different for a lathe when turning, as opposed to finishing?
35.A taper is to be cut on the aluminum part below. Indicate how far the tailstock should be offset and the speed and feed settings for the lathe.
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1.50” |
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1.00” |
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3.00” |
5.00” |
(ans. offset=0.4”, feed 0.005-0.010”, speed 760RPM)